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Duke, J.A. 1990. Promising phytomedicinals. p. 491-498. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR.

Promising Phytomedicinals

James A. Duke*

INTRODUCTION
IMPORTANT MEDICINAL PLANT SPECIES
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Table 1

INTRODUCTION

Two hundred and fifty years ago, there were few or no synthetic medicines. The 250,000-300,000 species of higher plants were the main source of drugs for the world's population. Today, 75% of the world's population, the poor 3/4ths, still relies on those plants and other tools of traditional medicine. In the U.S. and Europe the ecological movement has brought about a renewed interest in traditional medicines. High inflation rates in the third world have caused some citizens to return to or begin using herbal remedies. In Bolivia, the Ministry of Health and the Faculty of Medicine of the National University have given official and moral support for the return to native medicines (Healy 1986). Life expectancy of the poor has not increased quite so much as with the richer quarter of the world's population, who depend on non-traditional medicine. Even among prescription drugs, at least 25% contain at least one compound derived from higher plants. The percentage might be higher if we include over-the-counter (OTC) drugs. Today, many avant garde North American citizens, too, are beginning to seek natural alternatives to iatrogenic synthetics. The prescription drug market is around $40 billion** today, suggesting a value of about $10 billion for those drugs containing at least one compound derived from higher plants. Ironically, illicit drugs, mostly natural generate more revenue than prescription drugs, United States markets alone for illicit drugs are estimated at more than $150 billion.

In the 250 years when the "developed" quarter of the world shifted largely from naturals to synthetics, life expectancy and population nearly doubled, especially among the "developed" quarter. Who, then, would argue that natural drugs are better than synthetics? Some advocates of natural medicine tend to opt for the natural given a choice between a natural and synthetic of equal efficacy and toxicity. They argue that humans and our hominid ancestors coevolved with the natural compounds. Our genes and immune system also coevolved with many of the natural compounds, but have not experienced any of tomorrow's synthetics.

IMPORTANT MEDICINAL PLANT SPECIES

Table 1 was compiled mostly from published lists (Morton 1977, Farnsworth et al. 1985, Duke 1985a, and Tyler 1987). It lists 250 of the more important medicinal species, including those from which many of our prescription drugs are derived. Though more than half, maybe even more than three quarters, of the world's plant species are tropical, only about half of these 250 medicinal species are tropical. Why should half of the medicinal species be temperate? Simply because developed countries developed most drugs and, with the peculiar exception of the United States, developed countries tended to study their local flora first enabling them to rely on their own domestic supply. However, the United States imports much of its crude drug supply. Because of the high cost of labor in the United States, it is cheaper to import such things as chamomile from Europe, psyllium from India, and even jimson weed. But finished pharmaceutical products, like agricultural products, are among the few non-deficit columns in the United States export-import balance sheet.

I agree with others, such as Norman Farnsworth, America's most outspoken pharmacognoscist, who believe that somewhere in the plant kingdom there is a remedy for everything. But we may have to wait for the Japanese to develop and promote these remedies. In 1986, Japan developed 40% of the new drugs reaching the market, while the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, and France all together came up with only 40%, leaving 20% for the rest of the world. In 1987, Japan captured 56% of the natural product patents summarized in Phytotherapy Research.

Evolution argues quietly for the natural drug, while economics argues loudly for the unnatural drug. It now costs $125 million to bring a new drug to market in the United States. Out of 4,000 starts, only one makes it to market. Drug companies are not inclined to invest $125 million to prove an herb safe and efficacious. If we grow our medicine and self-medicate, the drug companies could not recoup their $125 million. Pharmaceutical firms do actively study potential medicinal plants, discovering bioactive compounds, which, with some molecular modifications, become proprietary, enabling them to recoup their investment

Podophyllotoxin and/or deoxypodophyllotoxin occur in such diverse genera as Anthriscus, Hernandia, Juniperus, Linum, and Podophyllum, some temperate, some tropical. Podophyllotoxin has been converted to etoposide (or vepeside) by a pharmaceutical firm (Bristol Myers). Etoposide was approved for cancer of the testicles in 1984 and for small cell cancer of the lungs in 1986. We assume, since the drug is approved, that it is safe and efficacious. It is said to be more safe and efficacious than the natural compound from which it derives. As with aspirin, etoposide may have fewer side effects than the natural compound from which it derives. But if the natural compound podophyllotoxin were safer and/or more efficacious, Bristol Myers would not be obligated to tell us. They could legally, and with economic good sense, withhold that information until the patent on etoposide expires. Who knows? Conceivably they may already have better naturals and semisynthetics! Why should they introduce them until they've recouped their investment on etoposide? Drug companies' fiscal health necessarily comes before your physical health.

All plant species contain poisonous, medicinal and nutritional compounds. For example, the nutritional value of herb teas is not to be discounted. Almost any foliar herb tea, with its vitamin C, could have prevented scurvy, scourge of sailors of the day of long voyages. In the tropics, 25-50 million children may be suffering from xerophthalmia, which could be alleviated or corrected by beta-carotene. A single large carrot may provide four times the vitamin A recommended daily allowance (RDA) (as beta-carotene). Fresh leafy vegetables average about 4,000 ug beta-carotene per 100 g. Foliar herbs used in herb teas also contain relatively high levels of betacarotene. On a zero-moisture basis (ZMB, water removed by calculation), the average herb is richer than 3% milk (ZMB) in fiber, calcium, iron, vitamin A, thiamin, niacin, and vitamin C (Duke and Atchley 1986).

We credit our forefathers with the intelligence to have discovered which species around them were poisonous and which were edible. Yet we sometimes seem reluctant to credit them with discovering those intermediate properties we call medicinal activities. Our forefathers discovered many, if not most of the important medicinal species tabulated herein. Farnsworth et al. (1985) calculated that 74% of 119 plant-derived drugs were discovered as a result of chemical studies to isolate the active substances responsible for their traditional use. In other words, we are indebted to our fore fathers empirical observations for about 75% of these currently used botanicals. We may expect new discoveries and uses among these same species, this year, next decade, next century. Only in this decade did we learn, e.g., about antiretroviral activities of hypericin, and anticirrhotic activity of colchicine, compounds rather common in temperate species.

We obtain our berberine, ephedrine (also synthesized), hypericin, papaverine (also synthesized), podophyllotoxin, sanguinarine, scopolamine, mostly from temperate species, but, we could get all of them from tropical species. With greater species diversity in the tropics, it follows that there is also a greater diversity in biologically active compounds in the tropics.

We've been cautioned by conservationists that tropical species (and their contained compounds) are jeopardized by habitat destruction. Such habitat destruction could endanger sources of some of our current medicines (i.e. Physostigma) and pesticides (i.e. Ryania) in genera confined to the tropics. The world will benefit from conservation of these species. The future discovery of new products from unexplored plants is dependent upon such conservation.

In Table 1, I've attempted to estimate the relative rarity of the medicinal plant germplasm in the United States. In Column 3 (Germplasm Availability) a Y (for Yes) indicates that germplasm is readily available, M (for Maybe) indicates that germplasm is limited, while an N (for No) indicates a perceived scarcity or nonexistence of public germplasm in the United States. Species scored M and N should be obtained through germplasm exploration or exchange.

In a computer data base, entitled Father Nature's Farmacy, I am compiling the surprising array of new medicinal uses for old (and some new) medicinal plants and the biologically active compounds contained therein. Firmly convinced that we could reduce the greenhouse effect significantly I urge the use of natural medicinal and pesticidal compounds (with biomass fuel as a byproduct in lieu of fossil fuels). Recently, there was near hysteria over traces of daminozide (Alar) (LD50 8,400 mg/kg orally in rats) in apples which contain several natural pesticides more toxic than alar. If Americans are going to get hysterical over traces of relatively non-toxic pesticides and growth regulators in the food chain, perhaps the much more copious natural pesticides should be removed from the food chain and put in the pesticide can, leaving the synthetics in the minds of man rather than the mouths of babes.

Reforestation of 100 million hectares with medicinal, pesticidal, and energy species, could tie up enough CO2 to halt the increase in CO2, hence retard or nullify the greenhouse warming (Duke 1985b). Two billion hectares in oil palm could provide us with enough oil (50 billion barrels) which, transesterified, could satisfy the world's energy needs renewably. There's much to be said for growing energy oils in the tropical zone and food oils (less saturated) in the temperate zone.

Elsewhere, I have detailed hundreds of new medicinal developments, the majority with old well-known medicinal species, the minority with species like Castanospermum australe A. Cunn. et Fras for which I find no folk medicinal data in the literature.

Here are just a few reported new uses for compounds from well-known old medicinal species: anabasine as antifumitory, artemisinin for malaria, chymopapain for disc problems, colchicine for cirrhosis, cynarin for choleretic activity, huperzine for anticholinesterase activity, hypericin for antiretroviral activity, gammalinolenic acid for atopic eczema, lobeline as an antifumitory, pilocarpine for xerostomia, polygodiol for antiyeast activity, psoralen for leukemia, sanguinarine for antiplaque activity, silymarin for hepatitis, taxol for antitumor activity, tetrahydrocannabinol for glaucoma, and yohimbine for serotinergic activity.

If forced to name the most important tropical medicinal species, I would apologetically list, with caveats, the following: Catharanthus, Cephaelis, Cinchona, Datura, Dioscorea, Erythroxylum, Physostigma (or Dioclea), Pilocarpus, Psoralea, and Rauwolfia. Collectively these have played a big role in dozens of major disorders. The United States is deficient in germplasm for more than half of these.

CONCLUSIONS

Once we have investigated and analyzed the tropical species as intensively as temperate species, I predict we'll find many more important medicinal species in the tropics. Already there are hundreds of well-known biologically active compounds from the thousands of tropical species that are used as folk or proven medicines. But fewer than 2% of these tropical species have been analyzed. It seems our duty as plant scientists and custodians of Planet Earth is to study carefully these plants. The value of products they can produce will exceed by a magnitude or more the cost of preserving them from extinction.

Somewhere in the tropics, there are probably compounds that will alleviate or correct every ailment known to mankind. Let's only hope someone finds them before the species and Tropical Medicine Chest become extinct. The survival of mankind is intimately dependent on the survival of forests. The more diverse tropical floras, containing more biologically active compounds, are even more threatened than the better studied temperate floras.

REFERENCES

Duke, J.A. 1985a. Handbook of medicinal herbs. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Duke, J.A. 1985b. A green world instead of the greenhouse. p. 15-21. In: International Permaculture Seed Yearbook 1985. Orange, MA.
Duke, J.A. and Atchley, A.A. 1986. Handbook of proximate analysis tables of higher plants. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, FL.
Farnsworth, N.R., O. Akerlele, A.S. Bingel, Z.G. Guo, and D.D. Soejarto. 1985. Medicinal plants in therapy. WHO Bul. 63:965-981.
Healy, K. 1986. The boom within the crisis: some recent effects of foreign cocaine markets on Bolivian rural society and economy p. 101-143. In: D. Pacini and C. Franquemont (eds.), Coca and cocaine. Cultural survival report 23. Transcript Printing Co., Peterborough, NH.
Morton, J.F. 1977. Major medicinal plants. C.C. Thomas, Publisher. Springfield, IL.
Tyler, V.E. 1987. The new honest herbal. G.F. Stickley Co., Philadelphia.

*New Crops Botanist Modified from a lecture, Pharmacological Value of Tropical Medicinal Plants, first presented at American Society of Horticultural Science, Orlando, Florida, November 10, 1987, revised, expanded, and amended for presentation at this First National Symposium on New Crops. Acknowledgment to Steven Foster, Izard Ozark Natives, P.O. Box 106, Eureka Springs, Arkansas 72632, for valuable comments on Chinese medicinal species and Arthur O. Tucker, Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Delaware State College, Dover, Delaware, for help with the plant nomenclature.

**Sittig's Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Encyclopedia (1988) recently gauges the worldwide pharmaceutical market at more than $100 billion.

Table 1. Important medicinal plant species.

Species Habit^z Germplasm
availability^y Some active ingredient(s)

Acacia senegal Tr T X M Gum acacia

Acokanthera schimperi Tr T X N Ouabain (cardiac)

Aconitum napellus Te P X Y Aconitine (CNS-active)

Adonis vernalis Te P X Y Adonoside (cardiotonic)

Aesculus hippocastanum Te T X Y Aescin (anti-inflammatory)

Agathosma betulina Tr S X N Limonene, pulegone, rutin, diosmin

Agave spp. Tr P EX YM Steroids

Agrimonia eupatoria Te P X Y Catechin,, Agrimophol (anthelmintic)

Ailanthus altissima Te T X Y Quassinoids (antimalarial)

Allium ssp. Te P X Y Alan, Allicin, Ajoene

Aloe vera Tr P X Y Aloin, aloe-emodin

Althaea officinalis Te P X Y Mucilage (demulcent)

Ammi majus Te A X Y Xanthotoxin (antipsoriac)

Ammi visnaga Te A X Y Khellin (antiasthmatic)

Anabasis aphylla Te S X M Anabasine (antismoking, myorelaxant)

Anadenanthera peregrina Tr T X Y Tryptamines

Anamirta cocculus Tr L X M Picrotoxin (analeptic)

Ananas comosus Tr P X Y Bromelain (proteolytic)

Andira araroba Tr T X N Chrysorobin (antipsoriac)

Andrographis paniculata Tr A X M Andrographolide, neoandrographolide (antidysenteric)

Angelica archangelica Te P X Y Imperatorin

Angelica polymorpha Te P X M Phthalides (sedative)

Anisodus tanguticus Te A X N Anisodine (anticholinergic)

Apocynum cannabinum Te P E Y Apocannoside, cymarin

Arctium lappa Te B X Y Arctiin inulin

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Te P E Y Arbutin (anticystitic)

Ardisia japonica Tr S X M Bergenin (antitussive)

Areca catechu Tr T X M Arecoline (anthelmintic)

Artemisia annua Tr A X Y Artemisinin (antimalarial)

Artemisia maritima Te S X M Santonin (ascaricide)

Aspidosperma spp. Tr T X N Yohimbine (aphrodisiac)

Astragalus gummifer Te P X Y Tragacanth

Atropa belladonna Te P X Y Atropine

Avena sativa Te A X Y Fiber

Banisteriopsis caapi Tr L X Y Harmine, harmaline

Belamcamda chinensis Te P X Y Shikonin (antibacterial antitussive)

Berberis spp. Te S EX YM Berberine (antidysenteric)

Betula lenta Te T E Y Methyl salicylate

Bocconia spp. Tr T X M Sanguinarine (antiseptic)

Borago officinalis Te A X Y Gamma-linolenic-acid (anti-PMS)

Brassica nigra Te A X Y Allyl isothiocyanate (rubefacient)

Brunfelsia uniflorus Tr T X M Manacine, manaceine

Calendula officinalis Te A X Y Calendula oil

Camellia sinesis Tr T X Y Caffeine, theophylline

Camptotheca acuminata Te T X M Camptothecin, etc. (antitumor)

Cannabis sativa Te A X Y Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (antiglaucomic, antemetic)

Capsicum spp. Tr A X Y Capsaicin

Carica papaya Tr S X Y Papain, chymopapain (proteolytic)

Castanospermum australe Tr T X Y Castanospermine

Catha edulis Tr S X Y Cathine, cathinine

Catharanthus roseus Tr P X Y Leurocristine (vincristine) and vinca leukoblastine (vinblastine)

Centella asiatica Tr P X E Y Asiaticoside (vulnerary)

Cephaelis ipecacuanha Tr P X N Emetine (amebicide, emetic)

Cephalotaxus spp. Te S X M Harringtonine, etc. (antitumor)

Chamaemelum nobile Te P X Y Chamazulene

Chelidonium majus Te P X Y Berberine, chelidonic acid

Chenopodium ambrosioides Tr A X E Y Ascaridole, methyl salicylate

Chimaphila spp. Te P E Y Arbutin

Chondodendron tomentosum Tr L X M Tubocurarine (myorelaxant)

Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium Te P X Y Pyrethrins (insecticide)

Chrysanthemum parthenium Te P X Y Parthenolides (antimigraine)

Cinchona calisaya Tr T X M Quinine, quinidine

Cinchona ledgeriana Tr T X M Quinine, quinidine

Cinchona pubescens Tr T X M Quinine, quinidine

Cinnamomum camphora Tr T X M Camphor (rubefacient)

Cissampelos pareira Tr L X M Cissampeline (myorelaxant)

Citrullus colocynthis Tr V X Y Citrullol, elaterin

Citrus limon Tr T X Y Pectin

Citrus sinensis Tr T X Y Citrus bioflavonoids, limonene

Cnicus benedictus Te A X Y Polyacetylenes

Colchicum autumnale Te P X Y Colchicine, colchiceine amide, demecolcine

Coleus forskohlii Tr P X M Forskolin (cardiovascular)

Commiphora abyssinica Tr T X N Myrrh gum

Commiphora molmol Tr T X N Myrrh gum

Convallaria majalis Te P X Y Convallatoxin (cardiotonic)

Copaifera langsdorfii Tr T X M Oleoresin

Coptis spp. Te P X E Y Berberine (antidysenteric), palmatine (antipyretic, detoxicant)

Corydalis ambigua Te X M (±)-Tetrahydropalmatine (analgesic, sedative)

Crataegus oxyacantha Te T X Y Amines

Crotalaria sessiliflora Tr P X M Monocrotaline (antitumor)

Croton tiglium Tr S X M Croton oil

Curcuma longa Tr P X Y Curcumin (choleretic, anticoagulant)

Cynara scolymus Te P X Y Cynarin (choleretic)

Cytisus scoparius Te S X Y Sparteine

Daphne genkwa Te S X N Yuanhuacine (ecbolic) yuanhuadine (antitumor)

Datura stramonium Tr A X Y Scopolamine, hyoscyamine, atropine

Digitalis lanata Te B X Y Digoxin, lanatoside C, acetyidigoxin

Digitalis purpurea Te B/P X Y Digitoxin and digitalis whole leaf

Dioscorea spp. Tr L X Y Diosgenin

Drimys winteri Tr T X N Polygodiol (fungicide)

Duboisia myoporoides Tr S X N Atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine

Echinacea spp. Te P E Y Echinacein: arabinogalactan

Eleutherococcus senticosus Te T X Y Eleutherosides

Ephedra spp. Te S X M Ephedrine, pseudephedrine, norpseudephedrine

Erythroxylum coca Tr T X Y Cocaine

Erythroxylum novogranatense Tr T X Y Cocaine

Eucalyptus spp. Tr T X Y Eucalyptol (cineole), eucalyptus oil

Fagopyrum esculentum Te A X Y Rutin

Filipendula ulmaria Te P X Y Salicylates

Frangula alnus Te T X Y Frangula bark

Fraxinus rhynchophylla Te T X M Aesculetin (antidysenteric)

Gaultheria procumbens Te P E Y Methyl salicylate (rubefacient)

Gelsemium sempervirens Te L E Y Gelsemium extract

Gentiana spp. Te P E Y Gentiamarin, gentisic acid

Ginkgo biloba Te T X Y Superoxide dismutase

Glaucium flavum Te A X Y Glaucine (antitussive, hypotensive)

Glycine max Te A X Y Sitosterols

Glycyrrhiza glabra Te P X Y Licorice extract

Gossypium Tr A X Y Gossypol (male contraceptives)

Guaiacum officinale Tr T X Y Guaiaretic acid, guaiaconic acid

Guarea rusbyi Tr T X M Cocillana extract

Hamamelis virginiana Te S E Y Tannins

Heliotropium indicum Tr A X Y Heliotrine (antitumor, hypotensive)

Hemsleya amabilis Tr L X N Hemsleyadin (antidysenteric, antipyretic)

Holarrhena antidysenterica Tr T X M Conessine (amebicide, anesthetic), conkurchine (hypotensive, vasodilator)

Humulus lupulus Te V X Y Humulone, gamma-linolenic-acid

Huperzia serrata Te P X N Huperzine (anticholinesterase)

Hydnocarpus kurzii Tr T X M Chaulmoogric acid, hydnocarpic acid

Hydrastis canadensis Te P E Y Hydrastine (hemostat), berberine

Hyoscyamus spp. Te P X M Hyoscyamine, hyoscine, atropine

Hypericum spp. Te AP X E Y Hypericin (antiretroviral)

Ipomoea purga Tr V X M Ipurolic acid, scammonin

Jateorrhiza columba Tr L X M Jateorrhizine

latropha curcas Tr S X Y Curcin

Juglans spp. Te T E X Y Juglone (anthelmintic)

Juniperus oxycedrus Te S X Y Terpineol

Justicia adhatoda Tr S X M Vasicine (oxytocic, expectorant)

Larrea divaricata Tr S E Y Nordihydroguariaretic acid (antioxidant)

Lavendula officinalis Te P X Y Lavender oil

Linum usitatissimum Te A X Y Linseed oil podophyllotoxin ALA

Liquidambar styraciflora Te T E Y Storax

Liquidambar orientalis Te T X M Storax

Lobelia spp. Te A E Y Lobeline (antismoking)

Lophophora williamsii Tr P E Y Mescaline

Lycoris squamigera Te P X M Galanthamine (cholinesterase-inhibitor)

Macleaya cordata Te P X Y Sanguinarine (antiplaque)

Malus sylvestris Te T X Y Pectin

Matricaria recutita Te A X Y Azulenes

Melaleuca cajuputi Tr T X Y Cajeput oil

Melissa officinalis Te P X Y Rosmarinic acid

Mentha arvensis Te P X Y Menthol

Mentha x piperita Te P X Y Menthol (rubefacient anesthetic)

Mentha spicata Te P X Y Menthol (rubefacient anesthetic)

Momordica charantia Tr V X Y Charantin (antidiabetic)

Montanoa spp. Tr P X M Extracts (contraceptive)

Morus alba Te T X Y Morin (myorelaxant)

Mucuna deeringiana Tr L X Y Bufotenine (anticholinesterase), L-Dopa (antiparkinsonian)

Mucuna pruriens Tr L X Y Bufotenine (anticholinesterase), L-Dopa (antiparkinsonian)

Musa paradisiaca Tr P X Y Fruit pulp (antiulcer)

Myristica fragrans Tr T X Y Nutmeg oil

Myroxylon balsamum Tr T X M Tolu balsam, benzyl benzoate

Myroxylon balsamum var. pereirae Tr T X M Peru balsam

Narcissus tazetta Te P X Y Tazettine, lycorine

Nardostachys jatamansi Te P X M Jatamansone (tranquilizer for hyperkinesis)

Nepeta cataria Te P X Y Nepetalactone

Nicotiana tabacum Te A E Y Nicotine (insecticide)

Ocotea glaziovii Tr T X N Glaziovine (antidepressant)

Oenothera biennis Te B E Y Gamma-linolenic acid

Olea europaea Tr T X Y Olive oil (mono-unsaturates)

Paeonia albiflora Te P X Y Paeoniflorin (antiinflammatory)

Panax ginseng Te P X Y Ginsenosides

Panax quinquefolius Te P E Y Ginsenosides

Papaver somniferum Te A X Y Codeine, morphine, noscapine, papaverine

Papaver bracteatum Te P X Y Thebaine

Passiflora spp. Tr V X E Y Harmalines

Paullinia cupana Tr L X M Caffeine

Pausinystalia yohimbe Tr T X M Yohimbine

Peganum harmala Tr P X Y Harmalines

Peumus boldus Tr T X M Boldine, benzylbenzoate (scabicide)

Phyllanthus spp. Tr T X E M Phyllanthoside (antitumor)

Physalis spp. Te P XE YMN Withanolides

Physostigma venenosum Tr L X N Physostigmine (eserine)

Picrasma excelsa Tr T X M Picrasmin neoquassin

Picrorrhiza kurroa Tr P X M Kuskin, cinnamic acid, vanillic acid, apocyanin (choleretic, laxative)

Pilocarpus spp. Tr T X MN Pilocarpine

Pimpinella anisum Te A X Y Anise oil

Pinus elliottii Te T E Y Turpentine

Pinus palustris Te T E Y Turpentine

Piper cubeba Tr S X M Cubebin, 1,4-cineole

Piper methysticum Tr S X M Kawain

Plantago indica Tr A X M Psyllium husks, mucilage (hypocholesterolemic)

Plantago ovatum Tr A X Y Psyllium husks, mucilage (hypocholesterolemic)

Plantago psyllium Tr A X Y Psyllium husks, mucilage (hypocholesterolemic)

Platycodon grandiflorum Te P X Y Platycodin (analgesic, antitussive)

Podophyllum spp. Te P E Y Podophyllin, podophyllotoxin

Polygala senega Te P E Y Senega fluid extract

Populus spp. Te T E Y Salicin

Populus balsamifera Te T E Y Poplar bud

Prunus domestics Te T E Y Prune concentrate

Prunus virginiana Te T E Y Wild cherry bark

Psoralea corylifolia Tr P X M Psoralen, bakuchicol isopsoralen

Pterocarpus marsupium Tr T X M Epicatechin (antidiabetic)

Punica granatum Tr S X M Pelletierine

Quassia amara Tr S X M Quassin

Quercus infectoria Te T X M Tannic acid

Quisqualis indica Tr T X Y Quisqualic acid (ascaricide)

Rauvolfia serpentina Tr S X M Reserpine

Rauvolfia spp. Tr S X M Deserpidine, reserpine, rescinnamine, ajmaline

Rhamnus spp. Te T E Y Anthraquinones, emodim casanthranol, danthron

Rheum spp. Te P X M Anthraquinones (emodin)

Rheum rhaponticum Te P X Y Anthraquinones (emodin)

Rhododendron molle Te S X M Rhomitoxin (hypotensive, tranquilizer)

Ribes spp. Te S X E Y Gamma-linolenic acid

Ricinus communis Tr S X Y Castor oil, ricinoleic acid, ricin

Rorippa indica Te A X Y Rorifone (antitussive)

Rosa gallica Te S X Y Rose petal infusion

Ruta graveolens Te P X Y Rutin, bergapten, psoralen

Salix alba Te T E Y Salicin, salicylic acid (analgesic)

Sanguinaria canadensis Te P E Y Sanguinarine

Sassafras albidum Te T E Y Safrole, eugenol

Saussurea lappa Tr P X Y Saussurine (bronchiorelaxant)

Scutellaria lateriflora Te P E Y Scutellarin

Senna alexandrina Tr S X Y Sennosides A + B, danthron

Serenoa repens Tr S E Y Sitosterol

Sesamum indicum Tr A X Y Sesame oil

Silybum marianum Te P X Y Silymarin (antihepatotoxic)

Simarouba glauca Tr T X M Glaucarubin (antiamebic)

Smilax spp. Tr L X E Y M N Steroids

Sophora pachycarpa Tr T X M Pachycarpine (oxytocic), sparteine (oxytocic), rutin

Stephanie tetrandra Tr L X M Tetrandrine (hypotensive)

Sterculia urens Tr T X Y Karaya gum

Strophanthus gratus Tr L X N Ouabain

Strophanthus kombe Tr L X N Ouabain

Strychnos nux-vomica Tr T X M Strychnine, brucine

Styrax benzoin Tr T X M Benzoin gum

Styrax paralleloneurus Tr T X N Benzoin gum

Symphytum spp. Te P X Y Allantoin (vulnerary)

Syzygium aromaticum Tr T X Y Clove oil (antiseptic)

Tabebuia spp. Tr T X Y Lapachol (antitumor)

Tabernanthe iboga Tr S X M Ibogaine

Taxus brevifolia Te T E Y Taxol (antitumor)

Tecoma stans Tr T X Y Lapachol, tecomine

Terminalia chebula Tr T X M Ellagitannins

Theobroma cacao Tr T X Y Theobromine, caffeine (CNS, stimulant)

Thymus vulgaris Te P X Y Thymol (spasmolytic)

Trichosanthes kirilowii Tr V X M Trichosanthin (abortifacient)

Trigonella foenum-graecum Te A X Y Fenugreekine

Tripterygium wilfordii Te L X Y Wilfordine (antitumor)

Urginea maritima Te P X Y Scillaren A (cardiotonic)

Urtica dioica Te P E Y Acetylcholine, histamine, tryptamine

Vaccinium myrtillus Te S X Y Anthocyanosides

Vale,riana officinalis Te P X Y Valepotriates (tranquilizer)

Veratrum viride Te P E Y Cryptennamine, protoveratrine

Vinca minor Te P X Y Vincamine (cerebrotonic, hypotensive)

Viscum album Te P X Y Viscin

Warburgia ugandensis Tr T X M Polygodiol (antifeedant antiyeast)

Withania somniferum Tr P X Y Withanolide

Zea mays Te A X Y Cornsilk (diuretic)

Zingiber officinale Tr P X Y Borneol (analgesic, antiinflammatory, antipyretic), shogoal, zingerone

Ziziphus jujube Te T X Y Oleanolic acid, C-AMP (antiallergic)

^zTr = Tropical, Te = Temperate, A = Annual, B = Biennial P = Perennial, S = Shrub, T = Tree, L = Liana (woody), V = Vine (herbaceous).
^yX = Exotic to U.S.; E = Endemic to U.S.; Y = Yes (sufficient germplasm), M = Maybe (questionable sufficiency of germplasm), N = No (insufficient germplasm in the United States).

Last update March 25, 1997 by aw

Species	Habit^z	Germplasm availability^y	Some active ingredient(s)
Acacia senegal	Tr T	X M	Gum acacia
Acokanthera schimperi	Tr T	X N	Ouabain (cardiac)
Aconitum napellus	Te P	X Y	Aconitine (CNS-active)
Adonis vernalis	Te P	X Y	Adonoside (cardiotonic)
Aesculus hippocastanum	Te T	X Y	Aescin (anti-inflammatory)
Agathosma betulina	Tr S	X N	Limonene, pulegone, rutin, diosmin
Agave spp.	Tr P	EX YM	Steroids
Agrimonia eupatoria	Te P	X Y	Catechin,, Agrimophol (anthelmintic)
Ailanthus altissima	Te T	X Y	Quassinoids (antimalarial)
Allium ssp.	Te P	X Y	Alan, Allicin, Ajoene
Aloe vera	Tr P	X Y	Aloin, aloe-emodin
Althaea officinalis	Te P	X Y	Mucilage (demulcent)
Ammi majus	Te A	X Y	Xanthotoxin (antipsoriac)
Ammi visnaga	Te A	X Y	Khellin (antiasthmatic)
Anabasis aphylla	Te S	X M	Anabasine (antismoking, myorelaxant)
Anadenanthera peregrina	Tr T	X Y	Tryptamines
Anamirta cocculus	Tr L	X M	Picrotoxin (analeptic)
Ananas comosus	Tr P	X Y	Bromelain (proteolytic)
Andira araroba	Tr T	X N	Chrysorobin (antipsoriac)
Andrographis paniculata	Tr A	X M	Andrographolide, neoandrographolide (antidysenteric)
Angelica archangelica	Te P	X Y	Imperatorin
Angelica polymorpha	Te P	X M	Phthalides (sedative)
Anisodus tanguticus	Te A	X N	Anisodine (anticholinergic)
Apocynum cannabinum	Te P	E Y	Apocannoside, cymarin
Arctium lappa	Te B	X Y	Arctiin inulin
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi	Te P	E Y	Arbutin (anticystitic)
Ardisia japonica	Tr S	X M	Bergenin (antitussive)
Areca catechu	Tr T	X M	Arecoline (anthelmintic)
Artemisia annua	Tr A	X Y	Artemisinin (antimalarial)
Artemisia maritima	Te S	X M	Santonin (ascaricide)
Aspidosperma spp.	Tr T	X N	Yohimbine (aphrodisiac)
Astragalus gummifer	Te P	X Y	Tragacanth
Atropa belladonna	Te P	X Y	Atropine
Avena sativa	Te A	X Y	Fiber
Banisteriopsis caapi	Tr L	X Y	Harmine, harmaline
Belamcamda chinensis	Te P	X Y	Shikonin (antibacterial antitussive)
Berberis spp.	Te S	EX YM	Berberine (antidysenteric)
Betula lenta	Te T	E Y	Methyl salicylate
Bocconia spp.	Tr T	X M	Sanguinarine (antiseptic)
Borago officinalis	Te A	X Y	Gamma-linolenic-acid (anti-PMS)
Brassica nigra	Te A	X Y	Allyl isothiocyanate (rubefacient)
Brunfelsia uniflorus	Tr T	X M	Manacine, manaceine
Calendula officinalis	Te A	X Y	Calendula oil
Camellia sinesis	Tr T	X Y	Caffeine, theophylline
Camptotheca acuminata	Te T	X M	Camptothecin, etc. (antitumor)
Cannabis sativa	Te A	X Y	Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (antiglaucomic, antemetic)
Capsicum spp.	Tr A	X Y	Capsaicin
Carica papaya	Tr S	X Y	Papain, chymopapain (proteolytic)
Castanospermum australe	Tr T	X Y	Castanospermine
Catha edulis	Tr S	X Y	Cathine, cathinine
Catharanthus roseus	Tr P	X Y	Leurocristine (vincristine) and vinca leukoblastine (vinblastine)
Centella asiatica	Tr P	X E Y	Asiaticoside (vulnerary)
Cephaelis ipecacuanha	Tr P	X N	Emetine (amebicide, emetic)
Cephalotaxus spp.	Te S	X M	Harringtonine, etc. (antitumor)
Chamaemelum nobile	Te P	X Y	Chamazulene
Chelidonium majus	Te P	X Y	Berberine, chelidonic acid
Chenopodium ambrosioides	Tr A	X E Y	Ascaridole, methyl salicylate
Chimaphila spp.	Te P	E Y	Arbutin
Chondodendron tomentosum	Tr L	X M	Tubocurarine (myorelaxant)
Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium	Te P	X Y	Pyrethrins (insecticide)
Chrysanthemum parthenium	Te P	X Y	Parthenolides (antimigraine)
Cinchona calisaya	Tr T	X M	Quinine, quinidine
Cinchona ledgeriana	Tr T	X M	Quinine, quinidine
Cinchona pubescens	Tr T	X M	Quinine, quinidine
Cinnamomum camphora	Tr T	X M	Camphor (rubefacient)
Cissampelos pareira	Tr L	X M	Cissampeline (myorelaxant)
Citrullus colocynthis	Tr V	X Y	Citrullol, elaterin
Citrus limon	Tr T	X Y	Pectin
Citrus sinensis	Tr T	X Y	Citrus bioflavonoids, limonene
Cnicus benedictus	Te A	X Y	Polyacetylenes
Colchicum autumnale	Te P	X Y	Colchicine, colchiceine amide, demecolcine
Coleus forskohlii	Tr P	X M	Forskolin (cardiovascular)
Commiphora abyssinica	Tr T	X N	Myrrh gum
Commiphora molmol	Tr T	X N	Myrrh gum
Convallaria majalis	Te P	X Y	Convallatoxin (cardiotonic)
Copaifera langsdorfii	Tr T	X M	Oleoresin
Coptis spp.	Te P	X E Y	Berberine (antidysenteric), palmatine (antipyretic, detoxicant)
Corydalis ambigua	Te	X M	(±)-Tetrahydropalmatine (analgesic, sedative)
Crataegus oxyacantha	Te T	X Y	Amines
Crotalaria sessiliflora	Tr P	X M	Monocrotaline (antitumor)
Croton tiglium	Tr S	X M	Croton oil
Curcuma longa	Tr P	X Y	Curcumin (choleretic, anticoagulant)
Cynara scolymus	Te P	X Y	Cynarin (choleretic)
Cytisus scoparius	Te S	X Y	Sparteine
Daphne genkwa	Te S	X N	Yuanhuacine (ecbolic) yuanhuadine (antitumor)
Datura stramonium	Tr A	X Y	Scopolamine, hyoscyamine, atropine
Digitalis lanata	Te B	X Y	Digoxin, lanatoside C, acetyidigoxin
Digitalis purpurea	Te B/P	X Y	Digitoxin and digitalis whole leaf
Dioscorea spp.	Tr L	X Y	Diosgenin
Drimys winteri	Tr T	X N	Polygodiol (fungicide)
Duboisia myoporoides	Tr S	X N	Atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine
Echinacea spp.	Te P	E Y	Echinacein: arabinogalactan
Eleutherococcus senticosus	Te T	X Y	Eleutherosides
Ephedra spp.	Te S	X M	Ephedrine, pseudephedrine, norpseudephedrine
Erythroxylum coca	Tr T	X Y	Cocaine
Erythroxylum novogranatense	Tr T	X Y	Cocaine
Eucalyptus spp.	Tr T	X Y	Eucalyptol (cineole), eucalyptus oil
Fagopyrum esculentum	Te A	X Y	Rutin
Filipendula ulmaria	Te P	X Y	Salicylates
Frangula alnus	Te T	X Y	Frangula bark
Fraxinus rhynchophylla	Te T	X M	Aesculetin (antidysenteric)
Gaultheria procumbens	Te P	E Y	Methyl salicylate (rubefacient)
Gelsemium sempervirens	Te L	E Y	Gelsemium extract
Gentiana spp.	Te P	E Y	Gentiamarin, gentisic acid
Ginkgo biloba	Te T	X Y	Superoxide dismutase
Glaucium flavum	Te A	X Y	Glaucine (antitussive, hypotensive)
Glycine max	Te A	X Y	Sitosterols
Glycyrrhiza glabra	Te P	X Y	Licorice extract
Gossypium	Tr A	X Y	Gossypol (male contraceptives)
Guaiacum officinale	Tr T	X Y	Guaiaretic acid, guaiaconic acid
Guarea rusbyi	Tr T	X M	Cocillana extract
Hamamelis virginiana	Te S	E Y	Tannins
Heliotropium indicum	Tr A	X Y	Heliotrine (antitumor, hypotensive)
Hemsleya amabilis	Tr L	X N	Hemsleyadin (antidysenteric, antipyretic)
Holarrhena antidysenterica	Tr T	X M	Conessine (amebicide, anesthetic), conkurchine (hypotensive, vasodilator)
Humulus lupulus	Te V	X Y	Humulone, gamma-linolenic-acid
Huperzia serrata	Te P	X N	Huperzine (anticholinesterase)
Hydnocarpus kurzii	Tr T	X M	Chaulmoogric acid, hydnocarpic acid
Hydrastis canadensis	Te P	E Y	Hydrastine (hemostat), berberine
Hyoscyamus spp.	Te P	X M	Hyoscyamine, hyoscine, atropine
Hypericum spp.	Te AP	X E Y	Hypericin (antiretroviral)
Ipomoea purga	Tr V	X M	Ipurolic acid, scammonin
Jateorrhiza columba	Tr L	X M	Jateorrhizine
latropha curcas	Tr S	X Y	Curcin
Juglans spp.	Te T	E X Y	Juglone (anthelmintic)
Juniperus oxycedrus	Te S	X Y	Terpineol
Justicia adhatoda	Tr S	X M	Vasicine (oxytocic, expectorant)
Larrea divaricata	Tr S	E Y	Nordihydroguariaretic acid (antioxidant)
Lavendula officinalis	Te P	X Y	Lavender oil
Linum usitatissimum	Te A	X Y	Linseed oil podophyllotoxin ALA
Liquidambar styraciflora	Te T	E Y	Storax
Liquidambar orientalis	Te T	X M	Storax
Lobelia spp.	Te A	E Y	Lobeline (antismoking)
Lophophora williamsii	Tr P	E Y	Mescaline
Lycoris squamigera	Te P	X M	Galanthamine (cholinesterase-inhibitor)
Macleaya cordata	Te P	X Y	Sanguinarine (antiplaque)
Malus sylvestris	Te T	X Y	Pectin
Matricaria recutita	Te A	X Y	Azulenes
Melaleuca cajuputi	Tr T	X Y	Cajeput oil
Melissa officinalis	Te P	X Y	Rosmarinic acid
Mentha arvensis	Te P	X Y	Menthol
Mentha x piperita	Te P	X Y	Menthol (rubefacient anesthetic)
Mentha spicata	Te P	X Y	Menthol (rubefacient anesthetic)
Momordica charantia	Tr V	X Y	Charantin (antidiabetic)
Montanoa spp.	Tr P	X M	Extracts (contraceptive)
Morus alba	Te T	X Y	Morin (myorelaxant)
Mucuna deeringiana	Tr L	X Y	Bufotenine (anticholinesterase), L-Dopa (antiparkinsonian)
Mucuna pruriens	Tr L	X Y	Bufotenine (anticholinesterase), L-Dopa (antiparkinsonian)
Musa paradisiaca	Tr P	X Y	Fruit pulp (antiulcer)
Myristica fragrans	Tr T	X Y	Nutmeg oil
Myroxylon balsamum	Tr T	X M	Tolu balsam, benzyl benzoate
Myroxylon balsamum var. pereirae	Tr T	X M	Peru balsam
Narcissus tazetta	Te P	X Y	Tazettine, lycorine
Nardostachys jatamansi	Te P	X M	Jatamansone (tranquilizer for hyperkinesis)
Nepeta cataria	Te P	X Y	Nepetalactone
Nicotiana tabacum	Te A	E Y	Nicotine (insecticide)
Ocotea glaziovii	Tr T	X N	Glaziovine (antidepressant)
Oenothera biennis	Te B	E Y	Gamma-linolenic acid
Olea europaea	Tr T	X Y	Olive oil (mono-unsaturates)
Paeonia albiflora	Te P	X Y	Paeoniflorin (antiinflammatory)
Panax ginseng	Te P	X Y	Ginsenosides
Panax quinquefolius	Te P	E Y	Ginsenosides
Papaver somniferum	Te A	X Y	Codeine, morphine, noscapine, papaverine
Papaver bracteatum	Te P	X Y	Thebaine
Passiflora spp.	Tr V	X E Y	Harmalines
Paullinia cupana	Tr L	X M	Caffeine
Pausinystalia yohimbe	Tr T	X M	Yohimbine
Peganum harmala	Tr P	X Y	Harmalines
Peumus boldus	Tr T	X M	Boldine, benzylbenzoate (scabicide)
Phyllanthus spp.	Tr T	X E M	Phyllanthoside (antitumor)
Physalis spp.	Te P	XE YMN	Withanolides
Physostigma venenosum	Tr L	X N	Physostigmine (eserine)
Picrasma excelsa	Tr T	X M	Picrasmin neoquassin
Picrorrhiza kurroa	Tr P	X M	Kuskin, cinnamic acid, vanillic acid, apocyanin (choleretic, laxative)
Pilocarpus spp.	Tr T	X MN	Pilocarpine
Pimpinella anisum	Te A	X Y	Anise oil
Pinus elliottii	Te T	E Y	Turpentine
Pinus palustris	Te T	E Y	Turpentine
Piper cubeba	Tr S	X M	Cubebin, 1,4-cineole
Piper methysticum	Tr S	X M	Kawain
Plantago indica	Tr A	X M	Psyllium husks, mucilage (hypocholesterolemic)
Plantago ovatum	Tr A	X Y	Psyllium husks, mucilage (hypocholesterolemic)
Plantago psyllium	Tr A	X Y	Psyllium husks, mucilage (hypocholesterolemic)
Platycodon grandiflorum	Te P	X Y	Platycodin (analgesic, antitussive)
Podophyllum spp.	Te P	E Y	Podophyllin, podophyllotoxin
Polygala senega	Te P	E Y	Senega fluid extract
Populus spp.	Te T	E Y	Salicin
Populus balsamifera	Te T	E Y	Poplar bud
Prunus domestics	Te T	E Y	Prune concentrate
Prunus virginiana	Te T	E Y	Wild cherry bark
Psoralea corylifolia	Tr P	X M	Psoralen, bakuchicol isopsoralen
Pterocarpus marsupium	Tr T	X M	Epicatechin (antidiabetic)
Punica granatum	Tr S	X M	Pelletierine
Quassia amara	Tr S	X M	Quassin
Quercus infectoria	Te T	X M	Tannic acid
Quisqualis indica	Tr T	X Y	Quisqualic acid (ascaricide)
Rauvolfia serpentina	Tr S	X M	Reserpine
Rauvolfia spp.	Tr S	X M	Deserpidine, reserpine, rescinnamine, ajmaline
Rhamnus spp.	Te T	E Y	Anthraquinones, emodim casanthranol, danthron
Rheum spp.	Te P	X M	Anthraquinones (emodin)
Rheum rhaponticum	Te P	X Y	Anthraquinones (emodin)
Rhododendron molle	Te S	X M	Rhomitoxin (hypotensive, tranquilizer)
Ribes spp.	Te S	X E Y	Gamma-linolenic acid
Ricinus communis	Tr S	X Y	Castor oil, ricinoleic acid, ricin
Rorippa indica	Te A	X Y	Rorifone (antitussive)
Rosa gallica	Te S	X Y	Rose petal infusion
Ruta graveolens	Te P	X Y	Rutin, bergapten, psoralen
Salix alba	Te T	E Y	Salicin, salicylic acid (analgesic)
Sanguinaria canadensis	Te P	E Y	Sanguinarine
Sassafras albidum	Te T	E Y	Safrole, eugenol
Saussurea lappa	Tr P	X Y	Saussurine (bronchiorelaxant)
Scutellaria lateriflora	Te P	E Y	Scutellarin
Senna alexandrina	Tr S	X Y	Sennosides A + B, danthron
Serenoa repens	Tr S	E Y	Sitosterol
Sesamum indicum	Tr A	X Y	Sesame oil
Silybum marianum	Te P	X Y	Silymarin (antihepatotoxic)
Simarouba glauca	Tr T	X M	Glaucarubin (antiamebic)
Smilax spp.	Tr L	X E Y M N	Steroids
Sophora pachycarpa	Tr T	X M	Pachycarpine (oxytocic), sparteine (oxytocic), rutin
Stephanie tetrandra	Tr L	X M	Tetrandrine (hypotensive)
Sterculia urens	Tr T	X Y	Karaya gum
Strophanthus gratus	Tr L	X N	Ouabain
Strophanthus kombe	Tr L	X N	Ouabain
Strychnos nux-vomica	Tr T	X M	Strychnine, brucine
Styrax benzoin	Tr T	X M	Benzoin gum
Styrax paralleloneurus	Tr T	X N	Benzoin gum
Symphytum spp.	Te P	X Y	Allantoin (vulnerary)
Syzygium aromaticum	Tr T	X Y	Clove oil (antiseptic)
Tabebuia spp.	Tr T	X Y	Lapachol (antitumor)
Tabernanthe iboga	Tr S	X M	Ibogaine
Taxus brevifolia	Te T	E Y	Taxol (antitumor)
Tecoma stans	Tr T	X Y	Lapachol, tecomine
Terminalia chebula	Tr T	X M	Ellagitannins
Theobroma cacao	Tr T	X Y	Theobromine, caffeine (CNS, stimulant)
Thymus vulgaris	Te P	X Y	Thymol (spasmolytic)
Trichosanthes kirilowii	Tr V	X M	Trichosanthin (abortifacient)
Trigonella foenum-graecum	Te A	X Y	Fenugreekine
Tripterygium wilfordii	Te L	X Y	Wilfordine (antitumor)
Urginea maritima	Te P	X Y	Scillaren A (cardiotonic)
Urtica dioica	Te P	E Y	Acetylcholine, histamine, tryptamine
Vaccinium myrtillus	Te S	X Y	Anthocyanosides
Vale,riana officinalis	Te P	X Y	Valepotriates (tranquilizer)
Veratrum viride	Te P	E Y	Cryptennamine, protoveratrine
Vinca minor	Te P	X Y	Vincamine (cerebrotonic, hypotensive)
Viscum album	Te P	X Y	Viscin
Warburgia ugandensis	Tr T	X M	Polygodiol (antifeedant antiyeast)
Withania somniferum	Tr P	X Y	Withanolide
Zea mays	Te A	X Y	Cornsilk (diuretic)
Zingiber officinale	Tr P	X Y	Borneol (analgesic, antiinflammatory, antipyretic), shogoal, zingerone
Ziziphus jujube	Te T	X Y	Oleanolic acid, C-AMP (antiallergic)