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N Use By Plants
Nitrate Assimilation
Ammonia Assimilation
Glu, Gln, Asn, Gly, Ser
Aminotransferases
Asp, Ala, GABA
Val, Leu, Ileu, Thr, Lys
Pro, Arg, Orn
Polyamines
Non-protein AAs
Alkaloids
Sulfate Assimilation
Cys, Met, AdoMet, ACC
His, Phe, Tyr, Tryp
Secondary Products
Onium Compounds
Enzymes
Methods
Simulation
References
HORT640 - Metabolic Plant Physiology

References, wax and synthesis

Aarts MG, Keijzer CJ, Stiekema WJ, Pereira A. Molecular characterization of the CER1 gene of Arabidopsis involved in epicuticular wax biosynthesis and pollen fertility. Plant Cell 7: 2115-2127 (1995).

Aharoni A, Dixit S, Jetter R, Thoenes E, Van Arkel G, Pereira A. The SHINE clade of AP2 domain transcription factors activates wax biosynthesis, alters cuticle properties, and confers drought tolerance when overexpressed in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 16: 2463-2480 (2004).

Ariizumi T, Hatakeyama K, Hinata K, Sato S, Kato T, Tabata S, Toriyama K. A novel male-sterile mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana, faceless pollen-1, produces pollen with a smooth surface and an acetolysis-sensitive exine. Plant Mol. Biol. 53: 107-116 (2003).

Baldwin A, Rogers HJ, Francis D, Harwood JL. Fatty acid elongation is important in the activity of thiocarbamate herbicides and in safening by dichlormid. J. Exp. Bot. 54: 1289-1294 (2003).

Beattie GA, Marcell LM. Effect of alterations in cuticular wax biosynthesis on the physicochemical properties and topography of maize leaf surfaces. Plant Cell Environ. 25: 1-16 (2002).

Beisson F, Li Y, Bonaventure G, Pollard M, Ohlrogge JB. The acyltransferase GPAT5 is required for the synthesis of suberin in seed coat and root of Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 19: 351-368 (2007).

Bonaventure G, Salas JJ, Pollard MR, Ohlrogge JB. Disruption of the FATB gene in Arabidopsis demonstrates an essential role of saturated fatty acids in plant growth. Plant Cell 15: 1020-1033 (2003).

Chen X, Goodwin SM, Boroff VL, Liu X, Jenks MA. Cloning and characterization of the WAX2 gene of Arabidopsis involved in cuticle membrane and wax production. Plant Cell 15: 1170-1185 (2003).

Chen X, Goodwin SM, Liu X, Chen X, Bressan RA, Jenks MA. Mutation of the RESURRECTION1 locus of Arabidopsis reveals an association of cuticular wax with embryo development. Plant Physiol. 139: 909-919 (2005).

Debono A, Yeats TH, Rose JK, Bird D, Jetter R, Kunst L, Samuels L. Arabidopsis LTPG is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored lipid transfer protein required for export of lipids to the plant surface. Plant Cell 21: 1230-1238 (2009).

DellaPenna D. Plant metabolic engineering. Plant Physiol. 125: 160-163 (2001).

Dietrich CR, Perera MA, D Yandeau-Nelson M, Meeley RB, Nikolau BJ, Schnable PS. Characterization of two GL8 paralogs reveals that the 3-ketoacyl reductase component of fatty acid elongase is essential for maize (Zea mays L.) development. Plant J. 42: 844-861 (2005).

Dunphy PJ. Location and biosynthesis of monoterpenyl fatty acyl esters in rose petals. Phytochemistry 67: 1110-1119 (2006).

Fatland BL, Ke J, Anderson MD, Mentzen WI, Cui LW, Allred CC, Johnston JL, Nikolau BJ, Wurtele ES. Molecular characterization of a heteromeric ATP-citrate lyase that generates cytosolic acetyl-coenzyme A in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol. 130: 740-756 (2002).

Feild TS, Sage TL, Czerniak C, Iles WJD. Hydathodal leaf teeth of Chloranthus japonicus (Chloranthaceae) prevent guttation-induced flooding of the mesophyll. Plant Cell Environ. 28: 1179-1190 (2005).

Frances H, Bligh J, Larkin PD, Roach PS, Jones CA, Fu H, Park WD. Use of alternate splice sites in granule-bound starch synthase mRNA from low-amylose rice varieties. Plant Mol. Biol. 38: 407-415 (1998).

Fujita N, Taira T. A 56-kDa protein is a novel granule-bound starch synthase existing in the pericarps, aleurone layers, and embryos of immature seed in diploid wheat (Triticum monococcum L.). Planta 207: 125-132 (1998).

Goicoechea N, Merino S, Sanchez-Diaz M. Contribution of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) to the adaptations exhibited by the deciduous shrub Anthyllis cytisoides L. under water deficit. Physiol. Plant. 122: 453-464 (2004).

Goodwin SM, Kolosova N, Kish CM, Wood KV, Dudareva N, Jenks MA. Cuticle characteristics and volatile emissions of petals in Antirrhinum majus. Physiol. Plant. 117: 435-443 (2003).

Grice K, Lu H, Zhou Y, Stuart-Williams H, Farquhar GD. Biosynthetic and environmental effects on the stable carbon isotopic compositions of anteiso-(3-methyl) and iso-(2-methyl) alkanes in tobacco leaves. Phytochemistry 69: 2807-2814 (2008).

Gulz P-G, Prasad RBN, Muller E. Surface structures and chemical composition of epicuticular waxes during leaf development of Fagus sylvatica L. Z. Naturforsch. [C] 47: 190-196 (1992).

Hanashiro I, Itoh K, Kuratomi Y, Yamazaki M, Igarashi T, Matsugasako J, Takeda Y. Granule-bound starch synthase I is responsible for biosynthesis of extra-long unit chains of amylopectin in rice. Plant Cell Physiol. 49: 925-933 (2008).

Hannoufa A, Negruk V, Eisner G, Lemieux B. The CER3 gene of Arabidopsis thaliana is expressed in leaves, stems, roots, flowers and apical meristems. Plant J. 10: 459-467 (1996).

Hollenbach B, Schreiber L, Hartung W, Dietz KJ. Cadmium leads to stimulated expression of the lipid transfer protein genes in barley: implications for the involvement of lipid transfer proteins in wax assembly. Planta 203: 9-19 (1997).

Holmes MG, Keiller DR. Effects of pubescence and waxes on the reflectance of leaves in the ultraviolet and photosynthetic wavebands: a comparison of a range of species. Plant Cell Environ. 25: 85-93 (2002).

Hooker TS, Lam P, Zheng H, Kunst L. A core subunit of the RNA-processing/degrading exosome specifically influences cuticular wax biosynthesis in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 19: 904-913 (2007).

Islam MA, Du H, Ning J, Ye H, Xiong L. Characterization of Glossy1-homologous genes in rice involved in leaf wax accumulation and drought resistance. Plant Mol. Biol. 70: 443-456 (2009).

Jarvis MC, Briggs SPH, Knox JP. Intercellular adhesion and cell separation in plants. Plant Cell Environ. 26: 977-989 (2003).

Jenks MA, Rich PJ, Rhodes D, Ashworth EN, Axtell JD, Ding CK. Leaf sheath cuticular waxes on bloomless and sparse-bloom mutants of Sorghum bicolor. Phytochemistry 54: 577-584 (2000).

Jetter R, Kunst L. Plant surface lipid biosynthetic pathways and their utility for metabolic engineering of waxes and hydrocarbon biofuels. Plant J. 54: 670-683 (2008).

Jiang H, Dian W, Wu P. Effect of high temperature on fine structure of amylopectin in rice endosperm by reducing the activity of the starch branching enzyme. Phytochemistry 63: 53-59 (2003).

Joubes J, Raffaele S, Bourdenx B, Garcia C, Laroche-Traineau J, Moreau P, Domergue F, Lessire R. The VLCFA elongase gene family in Arabidopsis thaliana: phylogenetic analysis, 3D modelling and expression profiling. Plant Mol. Biol. 67: 547-566 (2008).

Jung KH, Han MJ, Lee DY, Lee YS, Schreiber L, Franke R, Faust A, Yephremov A, Saedler H, Kim YW, Hwang I, An G. Wax-deficient anther1 is involved in cuticle and wax production in rice anther walls and is required for pollen development. Plant Cell 18: 3015-3032 (2006).

Kannangara R, Branigan C, Liu Y, Penfield T, Rao V, Mouille G, Höfte H, Pauly M, Riechmann JL, Broun P. The transcription factor WIN1/SHN1 regulates cutin biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Cell 19: 1278-1294 (2007).

King A, Nam JW, Han J, Hilliard J, Jaworski JG. Cuticular wax biosynthesis in petunia petals: cloning and characterization of an alcohol-acyltransferase that synthesizes wax-esters. Planta 226: 381-394 (2007).

Kinnunen H, Huttunen S, Laakso K. UV-absorbing compounds and waxes of Scots pine needles during a third growing season of supplemental UV-B. Environ. Pollut. 112: 215-220 (2001).

Kottapalli KR, Rakwal R, Shibato J, Burow G, Tissue D, Burke J, Puppala N, Burow M, Payton P. Physiology and proteomics of the water-deficit stress response in three contrasting peanut genotypes. Plant Cell Environ. 32: 380-407 (2009).

Kurata T, Kawabata-Awai C, Sakuradani E, Shimizu S, Okada K, Wada T. The YORE-YORE gene regulates multiple aspects of epidermal cell differentiation in Arabidopsis. Plant J. 36: 55-66 (2003).

Lai C, Kunst L, Jetter R. Composition of alkyl esters in the cuticular wax on inflorescence stems of Arabidopsis thaliana cer mutants. Plant J. 50: 189-196 (2007).

Lardizabal KD, Metz JG, Sakamoto T, Hutton WC, Pollard MR, Lassner MW. Purification of a jojoba embryo wax synthase, cloning of its cDNA, and production of high levels of wax in seeds of transgenic Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol. 122: 645-656 (2000).

Larkin PD, Park WD. Transcript accumulation and utilization of alternate and non-consensus splice sites in rice granule-bound starch synthase are temperature-sensitive and controlled by a single-nucleotide polymorphism. Plant Mol. Biol. 40: 719-727 (1999).

Leide J, Hildebrandt U, Reussing K, Riederer M, Vogg G. The developmental pattern of tomato fruit wax accumulation and its impact on cuticular transpiration barrier properties: effects of a deficiency in a betaketoacyl-CoA synthase (LeCER6). Plant Physiol. 144: 1667-1679 (2007).

Li F, Wu X, Lam P, Bird D, Zheng H, Samuels L, Jetter R, Kunst L. Identification of the wax ester synthase/acyl-CoA:diacylglycerol acyltransferase WSD1 required for stem wax ester biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Physiol. 148: 97-107 (2008).

Li Y, Beisson F, Ohlrogge J, Pollard M. Monoacylglycerols are components of root waxes and can be produced in the aerial cuticle by ectopic expression of a suberin-associated acyltransferase. Plant Physiol. 144: 1267-1277 (2007).

Lin SK, Chang MC, Tsai YG, Lur HS. Proteomic analysis of the expression of proteins related to rice quality during caryopsis development and the effect of high temperature on expression. Proteomics 5: 2140-2156 (2005).

Lu S, Song T, Kosma DK, Parson EP, Rowland O, Jenks MA. Arabidopsis CER8 encodes a long-chain acyl CoA synthetase 1 (LACS1) and has overlapping functions with LACS2 in plant wax and cutin synthesis. Plant J. 59: 553-564 (2009).

Lulai EC, Suttle JC, Pederson SM. Regulatory involvement of abscisic acid in potato tuber wound-healing. J. Exp. Bot. 59: 1175-1186 (2008).

Martinez F, Lazo YO, Fernandez-Galiano RM, Merino JA. Chemical composition and construction cost for roots of Mediterranean trees, shrub species and grassland communities. Plant Cell Environ. 25: 601-608 (2002).

Merida A, Rodriguez-Galan JM, Vincent C, Romero JM. Expression of the granule-bound starch synthase I (Waxy) gene from snapdragon is developmentally and circadian clock regulated. Plant Physiol. 120: 401-410 (1999).

Metz JG, Pollard MR, Anderson L, Hayes TR, Lassner MW. Purification of a jojoba embryo fatty acyl-coenzyme A reductase and expression of its cDNA in high erucic acid rapeseed. Plant Physiol. 122: 635-644 (2000).

Millar AA, Clemens S, Zachgo S, Giblin EM, Taylor DC, Kunst L. CUT1, an Arabidopsis gene required for cuticular wax biosynthesis and pollen fertility, encodes a very-long-chain fatty acid condensing enzyme. Plant Cell 11: 825-838 (1999).

Murata J, Roepke J, Gordon H, De Luca V. The leaf epidermome of Catharanthus roseus reveals its biochemical specialization. Plant Cell 20: 524-542 (2008).

Nakamura T, Vrinten P, Hayakawa K, Ikeda J. Characterization of a granule-bound starch synthase isoform found in the pericarp of wheat. Plant Physiol. 118: 451-459 (1998).

Negruk V, Yang P, Subramanian M, McNevin JP, Lemieux B. Molecular cloning and characterization of the CER2 gene of Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant J. 9: 137-145 (1996).

Patron NJ, Smith AM, Fahy BF, Hylton CM, Naldrett MJ, Rossnagel BG, Denyer K. The altered pattern of amylose accumulation in the endosperm of low-amylose barley cultivars is attributable to a single mutant allele of granule-bound starch synthase I with a deletion in the 5'-non-coding region. Plant Physiol. 130: 190-198 (2002).

Pighin JA, Zheng H, Balakshin LJ, Goodman IP, Western TL, Jetter R, Kunst L, Samuels AL. Plant cuticular lipid export requires an ABC transporter. Science 306: 702-704 (2004).

Qaderi MM, Reid DM. Growth and physiological responses of canola (Brassica napus) to UV-B and CO2 under controlled environment conditions. Physiol. Plant. 125: 247-259 (2005).

Rowland O, Lee R, Franke R, Schreiber L, Kunst L. The CER3 wax biosynthetic gene from Arabidopsis thaliana is allelic to WAX2/YRE/FLP1. FEBS Lett. 581: 3538-3544 (2007).

Rowland O, Zheng H, Hepworth SR, Lam P, Jetter R, Kunst L. CER4 encodes an alcohol-forming fatty acyl-CoA reductase involved in cuticular wax production in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol. 142: 866-877 (2006).

Ruiz-Santaella JP, Heredia A, Prado RD. Basis of selectivity of cyhalofop-butyl in Oryza sativa L. Planta 223: 191-199 (2006).

Saha S, Enugutti B, Rajakumari S, Rajasekharan R. Cytosolic triacylglycerol biosynthetic pathway in oilseeds. Molecular cloning and expression of peanut cytosolic diacylglycerol acyltransferase. Plant Physiol. 141: 1533-1543 (2006).

Schnurr J, Shockey J, Browse J. The acyl-CoA synthetase encoded by LACS2 is essential for normal cuticle development in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 16: 629-642 (2004).

Serra O, Soler M, Hohn C, Franke R, Schreiber L, Prat S, Molinas M, Figueras M. Silencing of StKCS6 in potato periderm leads to reduced chain lengths of suberin and wax compounds and increased peridermal transpiration. J. Exp. Bot. 60: 697-707 (2009).

Shepherd T, Wynne Griffiths D. The effects of stress on plant cuticular waxes. New Phytol. 171: 469-499 (2006).

St-Pierre B, Laflamme P, Alarco AM, De Luca V. The terminal O-acetyltransferase involved in vindoline biosynthesis defines a new class of proteins responsible for coenzyme A-dependent acyl transfer. Plant J. 14: 703-713 (1998).

Sturaro M, Hartings H, Schmelzer E, Velasco R, Salamini F, Motto M. Cloning and characterization of GLOSSY1, a maize gene involved in cuticle membrane and wax production. Plant Physiol. 138: 478-489 (2005).

Suh MC, Samuels AL, Jetter R, Kunst L, Pollard M, Ohlrogge J, Beisson F. Cuticular lipid composition, surface structure, and gene expression in Arabidopsis stem epidermis. Plant Physiol. 139: 1649-1665 (2005).

Todd J, Post-Beittenmiller D, Jaworski JG. KCS1 encodes a fatty acid elongase 3-ketoacyl-CoA synthase affecting wax biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant J. 17: 119-130 (1999).

Voelker T, Kinney AJ. Variations in the biosynthesis of seed-storage lipids. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 52: 335-361 (2001).

von Wettstein-Knowles P. Biosynthesis and genetics of waxes. In (RJ Hamilton ed) "Waxes: Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Functions", The Oily Press, Dundee, pp. 91-129 (1995).

Vrinten PL, Nakamura T. Wheat granule-bound starch synthase I and II are encoded by separate genes that are expressed in different tissues. Plant Physiol. 122: 255-264 (2000).

Wang AM, Xia Q, Xie WS, Dumonceaux T, Zou JT, Datla R, Selvaraj G. Male gametophyte development in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.): molecular, cellular, and biochemical analyses of a sporophytic contribution to pollen wall ontogeny. Plant J. 30: 613-623 (2002).

Warpeha KM, Gibbons J, Carol A, Slusser J, Tree R, Durham W, Kaufman LS. Adequate phenylalanine synthesis mediated by G-protein is critical for protection from UV radiation damage in young etiolated Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings. Plant Cell Environ. 31: 1756-1770 (2008).

Wen M, Jetter R. Composition of secondary alcohols, ketones, alkanediols, and ketols in Arabidopsis thaliana cuticular waxes. J. Exp. Bot. 60: 1811-1821 (2009).

Wilson LM, Whitt SR, Ibanez AM, Rocheford TR, Goodman MM, Buckler ES 4th. Dissection of maize kernel composition and starch production by candidate gene association. Plant Cell 16: 2719-2733 (2004).

Xu X, Dietrich CR, Delledonne M, Xia Y, Wen TJ, Robertson DS, Nikolau BJ, Schnable PS. Sequence analysis of the cloned glossy8 gene of maize suggests that it may code for a beta-ketoacyl reductase required for the biosynthesis of cuticular waxes. Plant Physiol. 115: 501-510 (1997).

Yu D, Ranathunge K, Huang H, Pei Z, Franke R, Schreiber L, He C. Wax crystal-sparse leaf1 encodes a beta-ketoacyl CoA synthase involved in biosynthesis of cuticular waxes on rice leaf. Planta 228: 675-685 (2008).

Zheng H, Rowland O, Kunst L. Disruptions of the Arabidopsis enoyl-CoA reductase gene reveal an essential role for very-long-chain fatty acid synthesis in cell expansion during plant morphogenesis. Plant Cell 17: 1467-1481 (2005).

Number of references = 78

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David Rhodes
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Last Update: 10/01/09