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N Use By Plants
Nitrate Assimilation
Ammonia Assimilation
Glu, Gln, Asn, Gly, Ser
Aminotransferases
Asp, Ala, GABA
Val, Leu, Ileu, Thr, Lys
Pro, Arg, Orn
Polyamines
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Alkaloids
Sulfate Assimilation
Cys, Met, AdoMet, ACC
His, Phe, Tyr, Tryp
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References
HORT640 - Metabolic Plant Physiology

References, phytochelatin

Abrahamson SL, Speiser DM, Ow DW. A gel electrophoresis assay for phytochelatins. Anal. Biochem. 200: 239-243 (1992).

Ahner BA, Price NM, Morel FM. Phytochelatin production by marine phytoplankton at low free metal ion concentrations: laboratory studies and field data from Massachusetts Bay. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 91: 8433-8436 (1994).

Al-Lahham A, Rohde V, Heim P, Leuchter R, Veeck J, Wunderlich C, Wolf K, Zimmermann M. Biosynthesis of phytochelatins in the fission yeast. Phytochelatin synthesis: a second role for the glutathione synthetase gene of Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Yeast 15: 385-396 (1999).

Astolfi S, Zuchi S, Passera C. Effect of cadmium on H(+)ATPase activity of plasma membrane vesicles isolated from roots of different S-supplied maize (Zea mays L.) plants. Plant Sci. 169: 361-368 (2005).

Astolfi S, Zuchi S, Passera C. Role of sulphur availability on cadmium-induced changes of nitrogen and sulphur metabolism in maize (Zea mays L.) leaves. J. Plant Physiol. 161: 795-802 (2004).

Bae W, Chen W, Mulchandani A, Mehra RK. Enhanced bioaccumulation of heavy metals by bacterial cells displaying synthetic phytochelatins. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 70: 518-524 (2000).

Bailey NJ, Oven M, Holmes E, Nicholson JK, Zenk MH. Metabolomic analysis of the consequences of cadmium exposure in Silene cucubalus cell cultures via 1H NMR spectroscopy and chemometrics. Phytochemistry 62: 851-858 (2003).

Bajguz A, Godlewska-Zylkiewicz B. Protective role of 20-hydroxyecdysone against lead stress in Chlorella vulgaris cultures. Phytochemistry 65: 711-720 (2004).

Beck A, Lendzian K, Oven M, Christmann A, Grill E. Phytochelatin synthase catalyzes key step in turnover of glutathione conjugates. Phytochemistry 62: 423-431 (2003).

Bennett LE, Burkhead JL, Hale KL, Terry N, Pilon M, Pilon-Smits EA. Analysis of transgenic Indian mustard plants for phytoremediation of metal-contaminated mine tailings. J. Environ. Qual. 32: 432-440 (2003).

Bleeker PM, Hakvoort HW, Bliek M, Souer E, Schat H. Enhanced arsenate reduction by a CDC25-like tyrosine phosphatase explains increased phytochelatin accumulation in arsenate-tolerant Holcus lanatus. Plant J. 45: 917-929 (2006).

Blum R, Beck A, Korte A, Stengel A, Letzel T, Lendzian K, Grill E. Function of phytochelatin synthase in catabolism of glutathione-conjugates. Plant J. 49: 740-749 (2007).

Bogs J, Bourbouloux A, Cagnac O, Wachter A, Rausch T, Delrot S. Functional characterization and expression analysis of a glutathione transporter, BjGT1, from Brassica juncea: evidence for regulation by heavy metal exposure. Plant Cell Environ. 26: 1703-1711 (2003).

Bonner ER, Cahoon RE, Knapke SM, Jez JM. Molecular basis of cysteine biosynthesis in plants: structural and functional analysis of O-acetylserine sulfhydrylase from Arabidopsis thaliana. J. Biol. Chem. 280: 38803-38013 (2005).

Bovet L, Eggmann T, Meylan-Bettex M, Polier J, Kammer P, Marin E, Feller U, Martinoia E. Transcript levels of AtMRPs after cadmium treatment: induction of AtMRP3. Plant Cell Environ. 26: 371-381 (2003).

Canovas D, Vooijs R, Schat H, de Lorenzo V. The role of thiol species in the hypertolerance of Aspergillus sp. P37 to arsenic. J. Biol. Chem. 279: 51234-51240 (2004).

Carrier P, Baryla A, Havaux M. Cadmium distribution and microlocalization in oilseed rape (Brassica napus) after long-term growth on cadmium-contaminated soil. Planta 216: 939-950 (2003).

Chassaigne H, Vacchina V, Kutchan TM, Zenk MH. Identification of phytochelatin-related peptides in maize seedlings exposed to cadmium and obtained enzymatically in vitro. Phytochemistry 56: 657-668 (2001).

Chen A, Komives EA, Schroeder JI. An improved grafting technique for mature Arabidopsis plants demonstrates long-distance shoot-to-root transport of phytochelatins in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol. 141: 108-120 (2006).

Clemens S. Molecular mechanisms of plant metal tolerance and homeostasis. Planta 212: 475-486 (2001).

Clemens S, Kim EJ, Neumann D, Schroeder JI. Tolerance to toxic metals by a gene family of phytochelatin synthases from plants and yeast. EMBO J. 18: 3325-3333 (1999).

Clemens S, Schroeder JI, Degenkolb T. Caenorhabditis elegans expresses a functional phytochelatin synthase. Eur. J. Biochem. 268: 3640-3643 (2001).

Cobbett C, Goldsbrough P. Phytochelatins and metallothioneins: roles in heavy metal detoxification and homeostasis. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 53: 159-182 (2002).

Cobbett CS. Heavy metal detoxification in plants: phytochelatin biosynthesis and function. IUBMB Life 51: 183-188 (2001).

Cobbett CS. A family of phytochelatin synthase genes from plant, fungal and animal species. Trends Plant Sci. 4: 335-337 (1999).

Cobbett CS. Phytochelatins and their roles in heavy metal detoxification. Plant Physiol. 123: 825-832 (2000).

Coblenz A, Wolf K. The role of glutathione biosynthesis in heavy metal resistance in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 14: 303-308 (1994).

De la Rosa G, Martinez-Martinez A, Pelayo H, Peralta-Videa JR, Sanchez-Salcido B, Gardea-Torresdey JL. Production of low-molecular weight thiols as a response to cadmium uptake by tumbleweed (Salsola kah). Plant Physiol. Biochem. 43: 491-498 (2005).

De Michele R, Vurro E, Rigo C, Costa A, Elviri L, Di Valentin M, Careri M, Zottini M, Sanita di Toppi L, Lo Schiavo F. Nitric oxide is involved in cadmium-induced programmed cell death in Arabidopsis suspension cultures. Plant Physiol. 150: 217-228 (2009).

Dominguez MJ, Gutierrez F, Leon R, Vilchez C, Vega JM, Vigara J. Cadmium increases the activity levels of glutamate dehydrogenase and cysteine synthase in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 41: 828-832 (2003).

Ebbs S, Lau I, Ahner B, Kochian L. Phytochelatin synthesis is not responsible for Cd tolerance in the Zn/Cd hyperaccumulator Thlaspi caerulescens (J. & C. Presl). Planta 214: 635-640 (2002).

Ederli L, Reale L, Ferranti F, Pasqualini S. Responses induced by high concentration of cadmium in Phragmites australis roots. Physiol. Plant. 121: 66-74 (2004).

Finkemeier I, Kluge C, Metwally A, Georgi M, Grotjohann N, Dietz KJ. Alterations in Cd-induced gene expression under nitrogen deficiency in Hordeum vulgare. Plant Cell Environ. 26: 821-833 (2003).

Fujita Y, el Belbasi HI, Min KS, Onosaka S, Okada Y, Matsumoto Y, Mutoh N, Tanaka K. Fate of cadmium bound to phytochelatin in rats. Res. Commun. Chem. Pathol. Pharmacol. 82: 357-365 (1993).

Gasic K, Korban SS. Transgenic Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) plants expressing an Arabidopsis phytochelatin synthase (AtPCS1) exhibit enhanced As and Cd tolerance. Plant Mol. Biol. 64: 361-369 (2007).

Gasic K, Korban SS. Expression of Arabidopsis phytochelatin synthase in Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) plants enhances tolerance for Cd and Zn. Planta 225: 1277-1285 (2007).

Gawel JE, Trick CG, Morel FM. Phytochelatins are bioindicators of atmospheric metal exposure via direct foliar uptake in trees near Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35: 2108-2113 (2001).

Grill E. Phytochelatins, the heavy metal binding peptides of plants: characterization and sequence determination. E.X.S. 52: 317-322 (1987).

Grill E, Winnacker EL, Zenk MH. Phytochelatins. Methods Enzymol. 205: 333-341 (1991).

Grzam A, Martin MN, Hell R, Meyer AJ. gamma-Glutamyl transpeptidase GGT4 initiates vacuolar degradation of glutathione S-conjugates in Arabidopsis. FEBS Lett. 581: 3131-3138 (2007).

Ha SB, Smith AP, Howden R, Dietrich WM, Bugg S, O'Connell MJ, Goldsbrough PB, Cobbett CS. Phytochelatin synthase genes from Arabidopsis and the yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Plant Cell 11: 1153-1164 (1999).

Hall JL. Cellular mechanisms for heavy metal detoxification and tolerance. J. Exp. Bot. 53: 1-11 (2002).

Hanikenne M, Motte P, Wu MCS, Wang T, Loppes R, Matagne RF. A mitochondrial half-size ABC transporter is involved in cadmium tolerance in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Plant Cell Environ. 28: 863-873 (2005).

Harmens H, Den Hartog PR, Bookum W, Verkleij J. Increased zinc tolerance in Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke is not due to increased production of phytochelatins. Plant Physiol. 103: 1305-1309 (1993).

Hartley-Whitaker J, Ainsworth G, Vooijs R, Ten Bookum W, Schat H, Meharg AA. Phytochelatins are involved in differential arsenate tolerance in Holcus lanatus. Plant Physiol. 126: 299-306 (2001).

Heiss S, Schafer HJ, Haag-Kerwer A, Rausch T. Cloning sulfur assimilation genes of Brassica juncea L.: cadmium differentially affects the expression of a putative low-affinity sulfate transporter and isoforms of ATP sulfurylase and APS reductase. Plant Mol. Biol. 39: 847-857 (1999).

Heiss S, Wachter A, Bogs J, Cobbett C, Rausch T. Phytochelatin synthase (PCS) protein is induced in Brassica juncea leaves after prolonged Cd exposure. J. Exp. Bot. 54: 1833-1839 (2003).

Hernandez-Allica J, Garbisu C, Becerril JM, Barrutia O, Garcia-Plazaola JI, Zhao FJ, Mcgrath SP. Synthesis of low molecular weight thiols in response to Cd exposure in Thlaspi caerulescens. Plant Cell Environ. 29: 1422-1429 (2006).

Hofgen R, Kreft O, Willmitzer L, Hesse H. Manipulation of thiol contents in plants. Amino Acids 20: 291-299 (2001).

Horemans N, Raeymaekers T, Van Beek K, Nowocin A, Blust R, Broos K, Cuypers A, Vangronsveld J, Guisez Y. Dehydroascorbate uptake is impaired in the early response of Arabidopsis plant cell cultures to cadmium. J. Exp. Bot. 58: 4307-4317 (2007).

Howarth JR, Dominguez-Solis JR, Gutierrez-Alcala G, Wray JL, Romero LC, Gotor C. The serine acetyltransferase gene family in Arabidopsis thaliana and the regulation of its expression by cadmium. Plant Mol. Biol. 51: 589-598 (2003).

Howden R, Andersen CR, Goldsbrough PB, Cobbett CS. A cadmium-sensitive, glutathione-deficient mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Physiol. 107: 1067-1073 (1995).

Howden R, Goldsbrough PB, Andersen CR, Cobbett CS. Cadmium-sensitive, cad1 mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana are phytochelatin deficient. Plant Physiol. 107: 1059-1066 (1995).

Hunter TC, Mehra RK. A role for HEM2 in cadmium tolerance. J. Inorg. Biochem. 69: 293-303 (1998).

Hussain D, Haydon MJ, Wang Y, Wong E, Sherson SM, Young J, Camakaris J, Harper JF, Cobbett CS. P-type ATPase heavy metal transporters with roles in essential zinc homeostasis in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 16: 1327-1339 (2004).

Imahara H, Hatayama T, Kuroda S, Horie Y, Inoue E, Wakatsuki T, Kitamura T, Fujimoto S, Ohara A, Hashimoto K. Production of phytochelatins in Polygonum cuspidatum on exposure to copper but not to zinc. J. Pharmacobiodyn. 15: 667-671 (1992).

Inouhe M, Ito R, Ito S, Sasada N, Tohoyama H, Joho M. Azuki bean cells are hypersensitive to cadmium and do not synthesize phytochelatins. Plant Physiol. 123: 1029-1036 (2000).

Inouhe M, Sumiyoshi M, Tohoyama H, Joho M. Resistance to cadmium ions and formation of a cadmium-binding complex in various wild-type yeasts. Plant Cell Physiol. 37: 341-346 (1996).

Juang RH, McCue KF, Ow DW. Two purine biosynthetic enzymes that are required for cadmium tolerance in Schizosaccharomyces pombe utilize cysteine sulfinate in vitro. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 304: 392-401 (1993).

Jumarie C, Fortin C, Houde M, Campbell PG, Denizeau F. Cadmium uptake by Caco-2 cells: effects of Cd complexation by chloride, glutathione, and phytochelatins. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 170: 29-38 (2001).

Kim DY, Bovet L, Kushnir S, Noh EW, Martinoia E, Lee Y. AtATM3 is involved in heavy metal resistance in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol. 140: 922-932 (2006).

Klapheck S, Fliegner W, Zimmer I. Hydroxymethyl-phytochelatins [(gamma-glutamylcysteine)n-serine] are metal-induced peptides of the Poaceae. Plant Physiol. 104: 1325-1332 (1994).

Kneer R, Kutchan TM, Hochberger A, Zenk MH. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Neurospora crassa contain heavy metal sequestering phytochelatin. Arch. Microbiol. 157: 305-310 (1992).

Kobayashi I, Fujiwara S, Saegusa H, Inouhe M, Matsumoto H, Tsuzuki M. Relief of arsenate toxicity by Cd-stimulated phytochelatin synthesis in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Mar. Biotechnol. (N.Y.) 8: 94-101 (2006).

Kubota H, Sato K, Yamada T, Maitani T. Phytochelatin homologs induced in hairy roots of horseradish. Phytochemistry 53: 239-245 (2000).

Kupper H, Mijovilovich A, Meyer-Klaucke W, Kroneck PM. Tissue- and age-dependent differences in the complexation of cadmium and zinc in the cadmium/zinc hyperaccumulator Thlaspi caerulescens (Ganges ecotype) revealed by x-ray absorption spectroscopy. Plant Physiol. 134: 748-757 (2004).

Landberg T, Greger M. No phytochelatin (PC2 and PC3) detected in Salix viminalis. Physiol. Plant. 121: 481-487 (2004).

Larsson EH, Asp H, Bornman JF. Influence of prior Cd(2+) exposure on the uptake of Cd(2+) and other elements in the phytochelatin-deficient mutant, cad1-3, of Arabidopsis thaliana. J. Exp. Bot. 53: 447-453 (2002).

Larsson EH, Bornman JF, Asp H. Physiological effects of cadmium and UV-B radiation in phytochelatin-deficient Arabidopsis thaliana, cad1-3. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 28: 505-512 (2001).

Lee DA, Chen A, Schroeder JI. ars1, an Arabidopsis mutant exhibiting increased tolerance to arsenate and increased phosphate uptake. Plant J. 35: 637-646 (2003).

Lee S, Korban SS. Transcriptional regulation of Arabidopsis thaliana phytochelatin synthase (AtPCS1) by cadmium during early stages of plant development. Planta 215: 689-693 (2002).

Lee S, Moon JS, Ko TS, Petros D, Goldsbrough PB, Korban SS. Overexpression of Arabidopsis phytochelatin synthase paradoxically leads to hypersensitivity to cadmium stress. Plant Physiol. 131: 656-663 (2003).

Li Y, Dankher OP, Carreira L, Smith AP, Meagher RB. The shoot-specific expression of gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase directs the long-distance transport of thiol-peptides to roots conferring tolerance to mercury and arsenic. Plant Physiol. 141: 288-298 (2006).

Li Y, Dhankher OP, Carreira L, Lee D, Chen A, Schroeder JI, Balish RS, Meagher RB. Overexpression of phytochelatin synthase in Arabidopsis leads to enhanced arsenic tolerance and cadmium hypersensitivity. Plant Cell Physiol. 45: 1787-1797 (2004).

Li Y, Kandasamy MK, Meagher RB. Rapid isolation of monoclonal antibodies. Monitoring enzymes in the phytochelatin synthesis pathway. Plant Physiol. 127: 711-719 (2001).

Liang Zhu Y, Pilon-Smits EA, Jouanin L, Terry N. Overexpression of glutathione synthetase in indian mustard enhances cadmium accumulation and tolerance. Plant Physiol. 119: 73-80 (1999).

Lichtenberger O, Neumann D. Analytical electron microscopy as a powerful tool in plant cell biology: examples using electron energy loss spectroscopy and X-ray microanalysis. Eur. J. Cell Biol. 73: 378-386 (1997).

Lin SL, Wu L. Effects of copper concentration on mineral nutrient uptake and copper accumulation in protein of copper-tolerant and nontolerant Lotus purshianus L. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 29: 214-228 (1994).

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McKenna IM, Chaney RL. Characterization of a cadmium-zinc complex in lettuce leaves. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 48: 13-29 (1995).

Mehra RK, Kodati VR, Abdullah R. Chain length-dependent Pb(II)-coordination in phytochelatins. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 215: 730-736 (1995).

Mehra RK, Miclat J, Kodati VR, Abdullah R, Hunter TC, Mulchandani P. Optical spectroscopic and reverse-phase HPLC analyses of Hg(II) binding to phytochelatins. Biochem. J. 314: 73-82 (1996).

Mehra RK, Mulchandani P. Glutathione-mediated transfer of Cu(I) into phytochelatins. Biochem. J. 307: 697-705 (1995).

Mehra RK, Mulchandani P, Hunter TC. Role of CdS quantum crystallites in cadmium resistance in Candida glabrata. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 200: 1193-1200 (1994).

Mehra RK, Tran K, Scott GW, Mulchandani P, Saini SS. Ag(I)-binding to phytochelatins. J. Inorg. Biochem. 61: 125-142 (1996).

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Murphy A, Taiz L. Comparison of metallothionein gene expression and nonprotein thiols in ten Arabidopsis ecotypes. Correlation with copper tolerance. Plant Physiol. 109: 945-954 (1995).

Nikiforova V, Kempa S, Zeh M, Maimann S, Kreft O, Casazza AP, Riedel K, Tauberger E, Hoefgen R, Hesse H. Engineering of cysteine and methionine biosynthesis in potato. Amino Acids 22: 259-278 (2002).

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Oven M, Raith K, Neubert RH, Kutchan TM, Zenk MH. Homo-phytochelatins are synthesized in response to cadmium in azuki beans. Plant Physiol. 126: 1275-1280 (2001).

Panda KK, Patra J, Panda BB. Persistence of cadmium-induced adaptive response to genotoxicity of maleic hydrazide and methyl mercuric chloride in root meristem cells of Allium cepa L.: differential inhibition by cycloheximide and buthionine sulfoximine. Mutat. Res. 389: 129-139 (1997).

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Pawlik-Skowronska B. Phytochelatin production in freshwater algae Stigeoclonium in response to heavy metals contained in mining water; effects of some environmental factors. Aquat. Toxicol. 52: 241-249 (2001).

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Pickering IJ, Prince RC, George GN, Rauser WE, Wickramasinghe WA, Watson AA, Dameron CT, Dance IG, Fairlie DP, Salt DE. X-ray absorption spectroscopy of cadmium phytochelatin and model systems. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1429: 351-364 (1999).

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Pomponi M, Censi V, Di Girolamo V, De Paolis A, di Toppi LS, Aromolo R, Costantino P, Cardarelli M. Overexpression of Arabidopsis phytochelatin synthase in tobacco plants enhances Cd(2+) tolerance and accumulation but not translocation to the shoot. Planta 223: 180-190 (2006).

Quaghebeur M, Rengel Z. The distribution of arsenate and arsenite in shoots and roots of Holcus lanatus is influenced by arsenic tolerance and arsenate and phosphate supply. Plant Physiol. 132: 1600-1609 (2003).

Raab A, Feldmann J, Meharg AA. The nature of arsenic-phytochelatin complexes in Holcus lanatus and Pteris cretica. Plant Physiol. 134: 1113-1122 (2004).

Raab A, Ferreira K, Meharg AA, Feldmann J. Can arsenic-phytochelatin complex formation be used as an indicator for toxicity in Helianthus annuus? J. Exp. Bot. 58: 1333-1338 (2007).

Ramos J, Naya L, Gay M, Abian J, Becana M. Functional characterization of an unusual phytochelatin synthase, LjPCS3, of Lotus japonicus. Plant Physiol. 148: 536-545 (2008).

Rausch T, Wachter A. Sulfur metabolism: a versatile platform for launching defence operations. Trends Plant Sci. 10: 503-509 (2005).

Rauser WE. Phytochelatins. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 59: 61-86 (1990).

Rauser WE. Phytochelatins and related peptides. Structure, biosynthesis, and function. Plant Physiol. 109: 1141-1149 (1995).

Rauser WE, Meuwly P. Retention of cadmium in roots of maize seedlings. Role of complexation by phytochelatins and related thiol peptides. Plant Physiol. 109: 195-202 (1995).

Rea PA, Vatamaniuk OK, Rigden DJ. Weeds, worms, and more. Papain's long-lost cousin, phytochelatin synthase. Plant Physiol. 136: 2463-2474 (2004).

Reina SV, Esteban E, Goldsbrough P. Arsenate-induced phytochelatins in white lupin: influence of phosphate status. Physiol. Plant. 124: 41-49 (2005).

Rivera-Becerril F, van Tuinen D, Martin-Laurent F, Metwally A, Dietz KJ, Gianinazzi S, Gianinazzi-Pearson V. Molecular changes in Pisum sativum L. roots during arbuscular mycorrhiza buffering of cadmium stress. Mycorrhiza 16: 51-60 (2005).

Romanyuk ND, Rigden DJ, Vatamaniuk OK, Lang A, Cahoon RE, Jez JM, Rea PA. Mutagenic definition of a papain-like catalytic triad, sufficiency of the N-terminal domain for single-site core catalytic enzyme acylation, and C-terminal domain for augmentative metal activation of a eukaryotic phytochelatin synthase. Plant Physiol. 141: 858-869 (2006).

Roth U, von Roepenack-Lahaye E, Clemens S. Proteome changes in Arabidopsis thaliana roots upon exposure to Cd2+. J. Exp. Bot. 57: 4003-4013 (2006).

Rother M, Krauss GJ, Grass G, Wesenberg D. Sulphate assimilation under Cd stress in Physcomitrella patens - combined transcript, enzyme and metabolite profiling. Plant Cell Environ. 29: 1801-1811 (2006).

Santiago IT, Febrero A, Jauregui O, Caldelas C, Araus JL, Bort J. Detection and quantification of unbound phytochelatin 2 in plant extracts of Brassica napus grown with different levels of mercury. Plant Physiol. 142: 742-749 (2006).

Satofuka H, Fukui T, Takagi M, Atomi H, Imanaka T. Metal-binding properties of phytochelatin-related peptides. J. Inorg. Biochem. 86: 595-602 (2001).

Schafer HJ, Haag-Kerwer A, Rausch T. cDNA cloning and expression analysis of genes encoding GSH synthesis in roots of the heavy-metal accumulator Brassica juncea L.: evidence for Cd-induction of a putative mitochondrial gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase isoform. Plant Mol. Biol. 37: 87-97 (1998).

Schat H, Llugany M, Vooijs R, Hartley-Whitaker J, Bleeker PM. The role of phytochelatins in constitutive and adaptive heavy metal tolerances in hyperaccumulator and non-hyperaccumulator metallophytes. J. Exp. Bot. 53: 2381-2392 (2002).

Schmoger ME, Oven M, Grill E. Detoxification of arsenic by phytochelatins in plants. Plant Physiol. 122: 793-802 (2000).

Sharma SS, Dietz KJ. The significance of amino acids and amino acid-derived molecules in plant responses and adaptation to heavy metal stress. J. Exp. Bot. 57: 711-726 (2006).

Singh S, Lee W, Dasilva NA, Mulchandani A, Chen W. Enhanced arsenic accumulation by engineered yeast cells expressing Arabidopsis thaliana phytochelatin synthase. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 99: 333-340 (2008).

Singla-Pareek SL, Yadav SK, Pareek A, Reddy MK, Sopory SK. Transgenic tobacco overexpressing glyoxalase pathway enzymes grow and set viable seeds in zinc spiked soils. Plant Physiol. 140: 613-623 (2006).

Siripornadulsil S, Traina S, Verma DP, Sayre RT. Molecular mechanisms of proline-mediated tolerance to toxic heavy metals in transgenic microalgae. Plant Cell 14: 2837-2847 (2002).

Speiser DM, Ortiz DF, Kreppel L, Scheel G, McDonald G, Ow DW. Purine biosynthetic genes are required for cadmium tolerance in Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Mol. Cell Biol. 12: 5301-5310 (1992).

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