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N Use By Plants
Nitrate Assimilation
Ammonia Assimilation
Glu, Gln, Asn, Gly, Ser
Aminotransferases
Asp, Ala, GABA
Val, Leu, Ileu, Thr, Lys
Pro, Arg, Orn
Polyamines
Non-protein AAs
Alkaloids
Sulfate Assimilation
Cys, Met, AdoMet, ACC
His, Phe, Tyr, Tryp
Secondary Products
Onium Compounds
Enzymes
Methods
Simulation
References
HORT640 - Metabolic Plant Physiology

References, betaine

Abdel-Ghany YS, Ihnat MA, Miller DD, Kunin CM, Tong HH. Structure-activity relationship of glycine betaine analogs on osmotolerance of enteric bacteria. J. Med. Chem. 36: 784-789 (1993).

Abdelmalek MF, Angulo P, Jorgensen RA, Sylvestre PB, Lindor KD. Betaine, a promising new agent for patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: results of a pilot study. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 96: 2711-2717 (2001).

Abdelmoumen H, Filali-Maltouf A, Neyra M, Belabed A, El Idrissi MM. Effect of high salts concentrations on the growth of Rhizobia and responses to added osmotica. J. Appl. Microbiol. 86: 889-898 (1999).

Abdul Jaleel C, Manivannan P, Sankar B, Kishorekumar A, Panneerselvam R. Calcium chloride effects on salinity-induced oxidative stress, proline metabolism and indole alkaloid accumulation in Catharanthus roseus. C. R. Biol. 330: 674-683 (2007).

Abee T, Palmen R, Hellingwerf KJ, Konings WN. Osmoregulation in Rhodobacter sphaeroides. J. Bacteriol. 172: 149-154 (1990).

Abee T, Wouters JA. Microbial stress response in minimal processing Int. J. Food Microbiol. 50: 65-91 (1999).

Abou-Donia AH, Abib A-Z, Din ASE, Evidente A, Gaber M, Scopa A. Two betaine-type alkaloids from Egyptian Pancratium maritimum. Phytochemistry 31: 2139-2141 (1992).

Adrian-Romero M, Blunden G. Betaine distribution in the Bromeliaceae. Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 29: 305-311 (2001).

Adrian-Romero M, Wilson SJ, Blunden G, Yang MH, Carabot-Cuervo A, Bashir AK. Betaines in coastal plants. Biochem. Sys. Ecol. 26: 535-543 (1998).

Agboma PC, Jones MGK, PeltonenSainio P, Rita H, Pehu E. Exogenous glycinebetaine enhances grain yield of maize, sorghum and wheat grown under two supplementary watering regimes. J. Agron. Crop Sci. 178: 29-37 (1997).

Ahlstrom B, Thompson RA, Edebo L. The effect of hydrocarbon chain length, pH, and temperature on the binding and bactericidal effect of amphiphilic betaine esters on Salmonella typhimurium. APMIS 107: 318-324 (1999).

Ahlstrom B, Thompson RA, Edebo L. Loss of bactericidal capacity of long-chain quaternary ammonium compounds with protein at lowered temperature. APMIS 107: 606-614 (1999).

Ahmad N, Wyn Jones RG. Glycinebetaine, proline and inorganic-ion levels in barley seedlings following transient stress. Plant Sci. Lett. 15: 231-237 (1979).

Ahmad N, Wyn Jones RG, Jeschke WD. Effect of exogenous glycinebetaine on Na+ transport in barley roots. J. Exp. Bot. 38: 913-922 (1987).

Ahmad R, Kim MD, Back KH, Kim HS, Lee HS, Kwon SY, Murata N, Chung WI, Kwak SS. Stress-induced expression of choline oxidase in potato plant chloroplasts confers enhanced tolerance to oxidative, salt, and drought stresses. Plant Cell Rep. 27: 687-698 (2008).

Akula A, Akula C, Bateson M. Betaine a novel candidate for rapid induction of somatic embryogenesis in tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze). Plant Growth Reg. 30: 241-246 (2000).

Al Tawari AA, Ramadan DG, Neubauer D, Heberle LC, Al Awadi F. An early onset form of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase deficiency: a report of a family from Kuwait. Brain Dev. 24: 304-309 (2002).

Alahari A, Apte SK. A novel potassium deficiency-induced stimulon in Anabaena torulosa. J. Biosci. 29: 153-161 (2004).

Alamoudi OA, Ali AY. Some practical aspects of measurements of betaines and their sulfur analogs by the use of HPLC. J. Microbiol. Meth. 10: 289-296 (1989).

Alamoudi OA, Ali AY, Blunden G, Smith BE. Betaines and tertiary sulfonium compounds from Saudi Arabian marine algae. Brit. Phycol. J. 23: 399-402 (1988).

Albers SV, Koning SM, Konings WN, Driessen AJM. Insights into ABC transport in archaea. J. Bioenerg. Biomembr. 36: 5-15 (2004).

Alfieri RR, Bonelli MA, Cavazzoni A, Briggotti M, Fumarola C, Sestili P, Mozzoni P, DE Palma G, Mutti A, Carnicelli D, Vacondio F, Silva C, Borghetti AF, Wheeler KP, Petronini PG. Creatine as a compatible osmolyte in muscle cells exposed to hypertonic stress. J. Physiol. 576: 391-401 (2006).

Alfieri RR, Cavazzoni A, Petronini PG, Bonelli MA, Caccamo AE, Borghetti AF, Wheeler KP. Compatible osmolytes modulate the response of porcine endothelial cells to hypertonicity and protect them from apoptosis. J. Physiol. 540: 499-508 (2002).

Alfieri RR, Petronini PG, Bonelli MA, Desenzani S, Cavazzoni A, Borghetti AF, Wheeler KP. Roles of compatible osmolytes and heat shock protein 70 in the induction of tolerance to stresses in porcine endothelial cells. J. Physiol. (London) 555: 757-767 (2004).

Alfthan G, Tapani K, Nissinen K, Saarela J, Aro A. The effect of low doses of betaine on plasma homocysteine in healthy volunteers. Br. J. Nutr. 92: 665-669 (2004).

Alia, Hayashi H, Chen THH, Murata N. Transformation with a gene for choline oxidase enhances the cold tolerance of Arabidopsis during germination and early growth. Plant Cell Environ. 21: 232-239 (1998).

Alia, Hayashi H, Sakamoto A, Murata N. Enhancement of the tolerance of Arabidopsis to high temperatures by genetic engineering of the synthesis of glycinebetaine. Plant J. 16: 155-161 (1998).

Alia, Kondo Y, Sakamoto A, Nonaka H, Hayashi H, Saradhi PP, Chen TH, Murata N. Enhanced tolerance to light stress of transgenic Arabidopsis plants that express the codA gene for a bacterial choline oxidase. Plant Mol. Biol. 40: 279-288 (1999).

Allakhverdiev SI, Kreslavski VD, Klimov VV, Los DA, Carpentier R, Mohanty P. Heat stress: an overview of molecular responses in photosynthesis. Photosynth. Res. 98: 541-550 (2008).

Allakhverdiev SI, Los DA, Mohanty P, Nishiyama Y, Murata N. Glycinebetaine alleviates the inhibitory effect of moderate heat stress on the repair of photosystem II during photoinhibition. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1767: 1363-1371 (2007).

Allakhverdiev SI, Murata N. Salt stress inhibits photosystems II and I in cyanobacteria. Photosynth. Res. 98: 529-539 (2008).

Allard F, Houde M, Krol M, Ivanov A, Huner NPA, Sarhan F. Betaine improves freezing tolerance in wheat. Plant Cell Physiol. 39: 1194-1202 (1998).

Allen RH, Stabler SP, Lindenbaum J. Serum betaine, N,N-dimethylglycine and N-methylglycine levels in patients with cobalamin and folate deficiency and related inborn errors of metabolism. Metabolism 42: 1448-1460 (1993).

Alloing G, Travers I, Sagot B, Le Rudulier D, Dupont L. Proline betaine uptake in Sinorhizobium meliloti: characterization of Prb, an Opp-like ABC transporter regulated by both proline betaine and salinity stress. J. Bacteriol. 188: 6308-6317 (2006).

Amezaga MR, Booth IR. Osmoprotection of Escherichia coli by peptone is mediated by the uptake and accumulation of free proline but not of proline-containing peptides. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65: 5272-5278 (1999).

Amezaga MR, Davidson I, McLaggan D, Verheul A, Abee T, Booth IR. The role of peptide metabolism in the growth of Listeria monocytogenes ATCC 23074 at high osmolarity. Microbiology 141: 41-49 (1995).

Amin US, Lash TD, Wilkinson BJ. Proline betaine is a highly effective osmoprotectant for Staphylococcus aureus. Arch. Microbiol. 163: 138-142 (1995).

Amlund H, Berntssen MH. Arsenobetaine in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.): influence of seawater adaptation. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 138: 507-514 (2004).

Anas MK, Lee MB, Zhou C, Hammer MA, Slow S, Karmouch J, Liu XJ, Broer S, Lever M, Baltz JM. SIT1 is a betaine/proline transporter that is activated in mouse eggs after fertilization and functions until the 2-cell stage. Development 135: 4123-4130 (2008).

Anchordoguy TJ, Rudolph AS, Carpenter JF, Crowe JH. Modes of interaction of cryoprotectants with membrane phospholipids during freezing. Cryobiology 24: 324-331 (1987).

Andersson C, Helmerius J, Hodge D, Berglund KA, Rova U. Inhibition of succinic acid production in metabolically engineered Escherichia coli by neutralizing agent, organic acids, and osmolarity. Biotechnol. Prog. 25: 116-123 (2009).

Andresen PA, Kaasen I, Styrvold OB, Boulnois G, Strom AR. Molecular cloning, physical mapping and expression of the bet genes governing the osmoregulatory choline-glycine betaine pathway of Escherichia coli. J. Gen. Microbiol. 134: 1737-1746 (1988).

Andrews H, Li Z, Altuve-Blanco A, Rivera M, Burnap RL. Expression, mutagenesis, and characterization of recombinant low-potential cytochrome c550 of photosystem II. Biochemistry 44: 6092-6100 (2005).

Angelidis AS, Smith GM. Role of the glycine betaine and carnitine transporters in adaptation of Listeria monocytogenes to chill stress in defined medium. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69: 7492-7498 (2003).

Angelidis AS, Smith LT, Hoffman LM, Smith GM. Identification of opuC as a chill-activated and osmotically activated carnitine transporter in Listeria monocytogenes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68: 2644-2650 (2002).

Angelidis AS, Smith LT, Smith GM. Elevated carnitine accumulation by Listeria monocytogenes impaired in glycine betaine transport is insufficient to restore wild-type cryotolerance in milk whey. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 75: 1-9 (2002).

Anjum F, Rishi V, Ahmad F. Compatibility of osmolytes with Gibbs energy of stabilization of proteins. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1476: 75-84 (2000).

Annamalai T, Venkitanarayanan K. Role of proP and proU in betaine uptake by Yersinia enterocolitica under cold and osmotic stress conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 75: 1471-1477 (2009).

Anthoni U, Christophersen C, Hougaard L, Nielsen PH. Quaternay ammonium compounds in the biosphere - an example of a versatile adaptive strategy. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. [B] 99: 1-18 (1991).

Arakawa K, Katayama M, Takabe T. Levels of betaine and betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase activity in the green leaves, and etiolated leaves and roots of barley. Plant Cell Physiol. 31: 797-803 (1990).

Arakawa K, Mizuno K, Kishitani S, Takabe T. Immunological studies of betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase in barley. Plant Cell Physiol. 33: 833-840 (1977).

Arakawa K, Takabe T, Sugiyama T, Akazawa T. Purification of betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase from spinach leaves and preparation of its antibody. J. Biochem. (Tokyo) 101: 1485-1488 (1987).

Arakawa T, Timasheff SN. Preferential interactions of proteins with solvent components in aqueous amino acid solutions. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 224: 169-177 (1983).

Arakawa T, Timasheff SN. The stabilization of proteins by osmolytes. Biophys. J. 47: 411-414 (1985).

Araki S, Eichenberger W, Sakurai T, Sato N. Distribution of diacylglycerylhydroxymethyltrimethyl-beta-alanine (DGTA) and phosphatidylcholine in brown algae. Plant Cell Physiol. 32: 623-628 (1991).

Araya F, Abarca O, Zuniga GE, Corcuera LJ. Effects of NaCl on glycine-betaine and on aphids in cereal seedlings. Phytochemistry 30: 1793-1795 (1991).

Arora A, Ha C, Park CB. Inhibition of insulin amyloid formation by small stress molecules. FEBS Lett. 564: 121-125 (2004).

Asha H, Gowrishankar J. Regulation of kdp operon expression in Escherichia coli: evidence against turgor as signal for transcriptional control. J. Bacteriol. 175: 4528-4537 (1993).

Ashraf M, Bashir A. Salt stress induced changes in some organic metabolites and ionic relations in nodules and other plant parts of two crop legumes differing in salt tolerance. Flora 198: 486-498 (2003).

Atkinson W, Downer P, Lever M, Chambers ST, George PM. Effects of orange juice and proline betaine on glycine betaine and homocysteine in healthy male subjects. Eur. J. Nutr. 46: 446-452 (2007).

Atkinson W, Elmslie J, Lever M, Chambers ST, George PM. Dietary and supplementary betaine: acute effects on plasma betaine and homocysteine concentrations under standard and postmethionine load conditions in healthy male subjects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 87: 577-585 (2008).

Atkinson W, Slow S, Elmslie J, Lever M, Chambers ST, George PM. Dietary and supplementary betaine: effects on betaine and homocysteine concentrations in males. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. Apr 3 [Epub ahead of print] (2009).

Atta MG, Dahl SC, Kwon HM, Handler JS. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors and immunosuppressants perturb the myo-inositol but not the betaine cotransporter in isotonic and hypertonic MDCK cells. Kidney Int. 55: 956-962 (1999).

Austen SK, Coombes JS, Fassett RG. Homocysteine-lowering therapy in renal disease. Clin. Nephrol. 60: 375-385 (2003).

Baburina OK, Shevyakova NI. Betaines as methyl group donors in alfalfa shoots exposed to saline media. Russ. J. Plant Physiol. 42: 764-771 (1995).

Bacic MK, Yoch DC. In vivo characterization of dimethylsulfoniopropionate lyase in the fungus Fusarium lateritium. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 106-111 (1998).

Bae JH, Anderson SH, Miller KJ. Identification of a high-affinity glycine betaine transport system in Staphylococcus aureus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59: 2734-2736 (1993).

Bagnasco S, Balaban R, Fales HM, Yang Y-M, Burg M. Predominant osmotically active organic solutes in rat and rabbit renal medullas. J. Biol. Chem. 261: 5872-5877 (1986).

Bagnasco SM, Montrose MH, Handler JS. Role of calcium in organic osmolyte efflux when MDCK cells are shifted from hypertonic to isotonic medium. Am. J. Physiol. 264: C1165-C1170 (1993).

Bago B, Pfeffer PE, Douds Jr DD, Brouillette J, Becard G, Shachar-Hill Y. Carbon metabolism in spores of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices as revealed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Plant Physiol. 121: 263-272 (1999).

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Baliarda A, Robert H, Jebbar M, Blanco C, Le Marrec C. Isolation and characterization of ButA, a secondary glycine betaine transport system operating in Tetragenococcus halophila. Curr. Microbiol. 47: 347-351 (2003).

Balkan J, Parldar FH, Dogru-Abbasoglu S, Aykac-Toker G, Uysal M. The effect of taurine or betaine pretreatment on hepatotoxicity and prooxidant status induced by lipopolysaccharide treatment in the liver of rats. Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 17: 917-921 (2005).

Banciu H, Sorokin DY, Kleerebezem R, Muyzer G, Galinski EA, Kuenen JG. Growth kinetics of haloalkaliphilic, sulfur-oxidizing bacterium Thioalkalivibrio versutus strain ALJ 15 in continuous culture. Extremophiles 8: 185-192 (2004).

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Blunden G, Yang MH, Yuan ZX, Smith BE, Patel A, Cegarra JA, Mathe I, Janicsak G. Betaine distribution in the Labiatae. Biochem. Sys. Ecol. 24: 71-81 (1996).

Boch J, Kempf B, Bremer E. Osmoregulation in Bacillus subtilis: synthesis of the osmoprotectant glycine betaine from exogenously provided choline. J. Bacteriol. 176: 5364-5371 (1994).

Boch J, Kempf B, Schmid R, Bremer E. Synthesis of the osmoprotectant glycine betaine in Bacillus subtilis: characterization of the gbsAB genes. J. Bacteriol. 178: 5121-5129 (1996).

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David Rhodes
Department of Horticulture & Landscape Architecture
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Last Update: 10/01/09