Lecture 8
Agriculture in Tropical Systems

Classification of Agricultural Systems

D. Whittlesey has classified world agricultural systems as follows:

1. Nomadic herding
2. Livestock ranching
3. Shifting cultivation ("dibble agriculture")
4. Rudimentary sedentary tillage
5. Intensive subsistence tillage with rice dominant
6. Intensive subsistence tillage without rice
7. Commercial plantation crop
8. Mediterranean agriculture (olive, citrus, grape, winter wheat)
9. Commercial grain farming
10. Commercial livestock and grain farming
11. Subsistence crop and subsistence stock farming
12. Commercial dairy farming
13. Specialized horticulture

 fig. 1

In the tropics there are two major Agricultural systems (two ends of the continuum):
Subsistence and Commercial.

Agricultural systems may be divided as follows:
Subsistence

  • Shifting cultivation
  • Permanent Field
  • Rice
  • Other crops
    •

    Commercial

  • Peasant: small land holder.
    The growers who are not necessarily the owner, are locked into a cash economy

  • "Hacienda" = large land holding but undercapitalized.
    A social system where the emphasis is not on high production but on high income to the owner (patron) as compared to farmers (peons).

  • Plantation: a highly capitalized production system often operated by extra-nationals

    • We can think of agriculture as a continuum of intensity:

  • Shifting agriculture is also known as "Swidden" (land extensive, low labor input)
  • Fallow
  • Dry or winter fallow
  • Annual cropping
  • Double cropping ("sahweh")—Intensive of land, high labor input.
    •

    Other contrasts in tropical agriculture

  • Perennial vs. annual crops
  • Diversified vs. monoculture

    • Comparision of Tropical Agricultural Systems and Factors of Production

    Factors of production Shifting cultivation Subsistence wet rice Plantation
    Land Extensive Intensive Large scale
    Labor input per unit of product Low* High Variable
    Capital Nil Intermediate High
    Energy input per unit of yield** High return Low return Lowest return

    *Much less total labor input as compared to subsistence wet rice. If given a choice, the wet rice farmer prefers shifting agriculture.
    **Human energy plus mechanical energy

    Economic development implies a movement to mechanization, an increase in capital investment, and an increase in energy input.

    In some sense, economic development provides inefficiency in terms of energy utilization.

    However, in most parts of the world, and especially in the developed world, energy in the form of fossil fuels is cheap and human energy is expensive.

    In shifting cultivation the system seems efficient because the forest works for humans and provides the energy.

    However the general economic view is that shifting cultivation is a stagnant process, non-elastic, no possibility of increase.

    It depends on unlimited land and a long time frame.

    In many primitive societies, constant warfare is ritualized and serves to limit populations.

    Classification of Shifting Cultivation on the Basis of Land Intensity

  • Nomadic shifting cultivation: "residence" rotates with field
  • Long fallow cultivation: forest climax
  • Short fallow cultivation: grass climax
  • Semi-permanent permanent cultivation: fallow 3–4 years, field boundaries remain intact

    • Common Features of Shifting Cultivation

  • Hand tools
  • No draft animals
  • Long rotations
  • Low population density
  • Practices by primitive people

    • Variations

  • Chitemene system of shifting cultivation practiced in Zambia (Northern Rhodesia).
  • A greater area than necessary is cleared and all refuse is moved to garden site.
  • The refuse on the garden site is burned and the ash of a great area acts as fertilizer for a small area.
  • This system is more destructive than ordinary cultivation.
  • In savanna climate there is not much forest regrowth.
    •

    Shifting agriculture is now mostly practiced in the tropical world.

  • South America—Amazon basin
  • Africa—Congo basin, linked to animal husbandry wherever possible. The tsetse fly limits cattle production
  • SE Asia—sharp line between shifting cultivation and wet rice.
    •

    Shifting agriculture predominates in highland mountainous regions (Indochina peninsula).
    In Indonesia, the wet rice farming predominates in Java but shifting agriculture is found in neighboring islands and carried out by colonists. Java is one of the most densely populated areas in the world.

    		 fig. 2

    Wet Rice Farming

    This is the classical agricultural system of monsoon climates.
    It is based on the growth of rice which can be grown as an aquatic crop.
    There are various variations to wet rice agriculture.
    This system will be discussed in more detail when we consider rice as a tropical crop.

    Classical wet rice: a system that absorbs labor, "shares the poverty" but is a dead end system.
    It is possible to continually increase yields by adding labor but returns are very low.
    Production can be increased with modern technology.
    Plant breeding produced IR 8 or "miracle rice" developed at the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines.
    A high yielding, dwarf, day-neutral rice that is responsive to fertilizer.
    Wet rice in a modern commercial system is found in Italy, Spain, California, and Arkansas.
    Wet rice is spreading to other tropical areas such as South American, and Africa.
    In Brazil for example the national diet is composed of beans and rice.
    Rice is increasingly popular in Africa but there is still a preference for millets and yams.
    In New Guinea population are perfectly agreeable to a shift to rice.

    Wet-rice farming frequently increases in intensity:

  • Multicropping (two crops of rice per year)
  • Intercropping (more than one type of crop per field)

    • Amazon Trip

    fig. 3

    South America

    fig. 4

    View of Sao Luis, Brazil

    		 fig. 5

    View of Sao Luis Harbor from hotel

    fig. 6

    Sao Luis

    		 fig. 7

    Forum—Sao Luis

    fig. 8

    Praca in Sao Luis

    		 fig. 9

    Sao Luis Harbor at twilight—sailboat

    fig. 10

    View of Sao Luis

    		 fig. 11

    Sailing vessels, Sao Luis

    fig. 12

    Sailor, Sao Luis

    		 fig. 13

    Seining fish

    fig. 14

    Sudene plane at Sao Luis

    		 fig. 15

    Lowlands near Sao Luis 20 ft high

    fig. 16

    Sudene plane at Ze-Dora

    		 fig. 17

    Hunter's casinha on Br 22 near Turi

    fig. 18

    Caboclo house on B 22

    		 fig. 19

    Br 22 near Turi

    fig. 20

    Colonization on the sides of B 22

    		 fig. 21

    Araguana

    fig. 22

    Cleared Forest for rice near Ze-Dora

    		 fig. 23

    Upland rice clearing in forest for rice, Maranhao

    fig. 24

    Carrying rice

    		 fig. 25

    Carrying rice harvest, Moranhao

    fig. 26

    Moving cleaned rice on Rio Pundere, Maranhao

    		 fig. 27

    Alexandre, Mother & Sister, Turi

    fig. 28

    Turi Camp of Sudene

    		 fig. 29

    Horta at Turi in the morning

    fig. 30

    Turi

    		 fig. 31

    Turi

    fig. 32

    Turi

    		 fig. 33

    Washing clothes in stream

    fig. 34

    Jules & Arara, Turi

    		 fig. 35

    Turi

    fig. 36

    Alexandre, sister & mother, Turi

    		 fig. 37

    Fishing in Turi river

    fig. 38

    Woman bathing in Turi river

    		 fig. 39

    Rice boat in Turi river

    fig. 40

    Poste dos Indis

    		 fig. 41

    Truck transport

    fig. 42

    Bus agency, Ze-Doca

    		 fig. 43

    "Mixto"—Bus

    fig. 44

    Sudene girls, Ze-Doca

    		 fig. 45
    fig. 46

    Air strip

    		 fig. 47

    Leper house, Ze-Doca

    fig. 48

    Boys carrying pig, Ze-Doca

    		 fig. 49

    Caboclo & monkey

    fig. 50

    Caboclo house

    		 fig. 51

    Caboclo, cutting log for timber

    fig. 52

    Construction at Ze-Doca

    		 fig. 53

    House Contruction, Ze-Doca

    fig. 54

    House Construciton, Ze-Doca

    		 fig. 55

    Caboclo & family, Ze-Doca

    fig. 56

    Father & child, Ze-Doca

    		 fig. 57

    De-husking rice, Ze-Doca, Moranhao

    fig. 58

    Separating rice & chaff, Ze-Doca, Maranhao

    		 fig. 59

    Unloading Rice, Bon Jardin

    fig. 60

    Mercado & Restaurant, Bon Jardin

    		 fig. 61

    Restaurant, Bon Jardin

    fig. 62

    Old sugar factory, Pindire Mirim

    		 fig. 63

    Praca, Pindire Mirim

    fig. 64

    Pindire Mirim

    		 fig. 65
    fig. 66

    Research farm shading transplants

    		 fig. 67

    Trip to Manaus and Amazon

    fig. 68

    Amazon Excursion

    		 fig. 69

    Manaus, Brazil

    fig. 70

    Manaus, Brazil

    		 fig. 71

    Manaus, Brazil

    fig. 72

    Manaus, Brazil

    		 fig. 73

    Manaus, Brazil

    fig. 74

    Manaus, Brazil

    		 fig. 75

    Manaus, Brazil

    fig. 76 fig. 77
    fig. 78 fig. 79 fig. 80
    fig. 81 fig. 82

    River Reststop

    fig. 83 fig. 84
    fig. 85 fig. 86
    fig. 87 fig. 88
    fig. 89

    Amazon River

    		 fig. 90

    Amazon River

    fig. 91

    Amazon planting

    		 fig. 92
    fig. 93

    Poverty

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